“Don’t Just Collect Words”: Strategies for Advanced Indigenous Language Learning

Résumé

Les locuteurs d’une langue autochtone de niveau avancé sont indispensables dans le domaine de revitalisation des langues autochtones (RLA). Les personnes dont la langue maternelle est une langue autochtone sont en train de vieillir et mourrir; forçant une dépendance aux adultes de compétence profonde à faire avancer leur langue (Fishman, 1991; Hinton, 2011; W.H. Wilson, 2018). Peu d’études dans le domaine de RLA toutefois se concentrent sur les apprenants adultes et encore moins d’études se concentrent sur les adultes qui travaillent sur une compétence profonde. De même, dans le domaine de la linguistique appliquée (LA), une attention minime est accordée aux stratégies ciblés à l’apprentissage avancé du langage et encore moins d’attention sur l’apprentissage des langues autochtones (Daniels & Sterzuk, 2022; McIvor, 2020). Cet article présente les résultats d’une étude ciblée à la comprehension de la façon dont les apprenants adultes des langues autochtones ont acquis une competence profonde, incluant des cas où les apprenants manquaient presque toute guidance parce qu’il y en a peu, voire aucun locuteur de langue maternelle autochtone sur lesquelles ils pouvaient compter. Cet article présente les stratégies et techniques menées par les participants pour réussir à atteindre une compétence profonde. On partage les aperçus de ce context afin d’explorer davantage la compréhension et les possibilités d’un lien plus profond entre LA et RLA.

Références

1. Absolon, K. E. (2011). Kaandossiwin: How we come to know. Fernwood Publishing.
2. ACTFL. (2012). ACTFL proficiency guidelines 2012. https://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/guidelines/ACTFLProficiencyGuidelines2012.pdf
3. Alexie, O., Alexie, S., & Marlow, P. (2009). Creating space and defining roles: Elders and adult Yup’ik immersion. Journal of American Indian Education, 48(3), 1–18. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24398752
4. Archibald, J. (2008). Indigenous storywork: Educating the heart, mind, body, and spirit. UBC Press.
5. Barron, A., Gu, Y., & Steen, G. (Eds.). (2017). The Routledge handbook of pragmatics. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315668925
6. Battiste, M. (2013). Decolonizing education: Nourishing the learning spirit. Purich Publishing.
7. Benson, N. (2024). Adult Indigenous language learning: From intermediate to advanced language proficiency and beyond. [Manuscript in preparation]. Department of Curriculum and Instruction, University of Victoria.
8. Benson, N. (in press). Promising trends in second language acquisition for Indigenous language revitalization. Proceedings of the 27th Stabilizing Indigenous Languages Symposium. Queens University.
9. Benson, N., & Khelsilem. (2021). A glossary of Sḵwx̱wú7mesh Sníchim revitalization: The work of adult Indigenous language education. WINHEC: International Journal of Indigenous Education Scholarship, 16(1), 142–178. https://doi.org/10.18357/wj161202120285
10. Bischoff, S. T., & Jany, C. (Eds.). (2019). Insights from practices in Community-Based Research: From theory to practice around the globe. De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110527018
11. Block, D. (2003). The social turn in second language acquisition. Georgetown University Press.
12. Bommelyn, P., & Tuttle, R. (2018). Tolowa Dee’ni’ language in our home. In L. Hinton, L. Huss, & G. Roche (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of language revitalization (pp. 115–122). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315561271
13. Brant, T. J. (2024). Tó: nya’teká:yen tsi entewà:ronke’: Onkwehonwe’néha documentation for advanced adult Kanyen’kéha learning [Doctoral dissertation, University of Victoria]. http://hdl.handle.net/1828/15770
14. Brown, S., & Larson-Hall, J. (2012). Second language acquisition myths: Applying second language research to classroom teaching. University of Michigan Press. https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.4392941
15. Byrnes, H. (2012). Advanced language proficiency. In S. M. Gass, & A. Mackey (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 506–520). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203808184
16. Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis. SAGE.
17. Claxton, R.-A. (2020). lhwet tse’ xwi’em’? hwi’ “een’thu tse”. How I learned to perform a Hul’q’umi’num’ story [Master’s thesis, Simon Fraser University]. https://summit.sfu.ca/item/34768
18. Comeau, E. (2018). Literacy and language revitalization: Leaving a visible trace [Master’s thesis, University of Victoria]. https://dspace.library.uvic.ca/handle/1828/9421
19. Cook, V. (2016). Second language learning and language teaching (5th ed.). Routledge.
20. Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications.
21. Czaykowska-Higgins, E. (2009). Research models, community engagement, and linguistic fieldwork: Reflections on working within Canadian indigenous communities. Language Documentation & Conservation, 3(1), 15–50.
22. Daniels, B., Morin, R., Cook, B., & Thunder, D. (2022). How to start a language experience camp: tânisi ka-êsi mâcipitamihk pîkiskwêwin waniskâpicikêwin. nēhiyawak Language Experience. https://nehiyawak.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/DANIELS_nehiyawak-Language-Experience-Camp-Guide-2022-Edited-Final-June.pdf
23. Daniels, B., & Sterzuk, A. (2022). Indigenous language revitalization and applied linguistics: Conceptualizing an ethical space of engagement between academic fields. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 25(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.37213/cjal.2022.31841
24. Daniels, D. (2016). xwi’xwi’em’: My Hul’q’umi’num’ storytelling journey [University of Victoria]. https://dspace.library.uvic.ca/handle/1828/10030
25. DeCaire, R. (2023). The role of adult immersion in Kanien’kéha revitalization [Doctoral dissertation, University of Hawai’i]. https://dspace.lib.hawaii.edu/items/a69bbbfd-c397-486b-b23a-125be577cb73
26. DeKeyser, R. (2018). Age in learning and teaching grammar. In J. I. Liontas (Ed.), The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching. John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0106
27. Douglas Fir Group. (2016). A transdisciplinary framework for SLA in a multilingual world. Modern Language Journal, 100, 19–47. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12301
28. Ellis, N. C. (2008). The dynamics of second language emergence: Cycles of language use, language change, and language acquisition. Modern Language Journal, 92(2), 232–249. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00716.x
29. Fishman, J. A. (1991). Reversing language shift: Theoretical and empirical foundations of assistance to threatened languages. Multilingual Matters.
30. Foxcroft, D. (2016). saač ̓ inkin huuḥtakšiiḥ (we are always learning together): Advancing nuučaan̓uł adult learners through peer-support. [Master’s thesis, University of Victoria]. https://dspace.library.uvic.ca/handle/1828/9840
31. Gardner, E., & Ciotti, S. (2018). An overview of Where Are Your Keys? In Leanne Hinton, L. Huss, & G. Roche (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of language revitalization (pp. 137–145). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315561271
32. Gass, S. M., & Mackey, A. (2006). Input, interaction and output. AILA Review, 19, 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1075/aila.19.03gas
33. Giffen, R. (2018). How to use a hunting book. Where Are Your Keys. https://whereareyourkeys.org/how-to-use-a-hunting-book/
34. Gordon, C. (2009). Anishnaabemowin pane: A qualitative exploratory case study of an Indigenous language immersion revitalization program [Doctoral dissertation, Capella University]. https://www.malsmb.ca/docs/anishnaabemowin-pane.pdf
35. Green, T. J. (2017). Pathways to creating Onkwehonwenéha speakers at Six Nations of the Grand River Territory. Six Nations Polytechnic. https://snpolytechnic.com/node/443
36. Green, T. J. (2018). Teaching Haudenosaunee languages: A manual of methods, approaches, techniques, strategies & activities useful and effective for teaching Haudenosaunee languages at Six Nations of the Grand River Territory. Six Nations Language Commission. https://www.snlanguagecommission.com/teaching-haudenosaunee-languages
37. Green, T. J., & Maracle, O. B. (2018). The Root-Word Method for building proficient second-language speakers of polysynthetic languages: Onkwawén:na Kentyókhwa adult Mohawk language immersion program. In L. Hinton, L. Huss, & G. Roche (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of language revitalization (pp. 146–155). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315561271
38. Hardan, A. A. (2013). Language learning strategies: A general overview. Social and Behavioural Science, 106, 1712–1726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.194
39. Hermes, M., Bang, M., & Marin, A. (2012). Designing Indigenous language revitalization. Harvard Educational Review, 82(3), 381-402. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.82.3.q8117w861241871j
40. Hermes, M., & Engman, M. M. (2017). Resounding the clarion call: Indigenous language learners and documentation. Language Documentation and Description, 14, 59–87. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.25894/ldd148
41. Hinton, L. (2011). Language revitalization and language pedagogy: new teaching and learning strategies. Language and Education, 25(4), 307–318. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2011.577220
42. Hinton, L. (Ed.) (2013). Bringing our languages home: Language revitalization for families. Heyday Books.
43. Hinton, L, Florey, M., Gessner, S., & Manatowa-Bailey, J. (2018). The master-apprentice language learning program. In L. Hinton, L. Huss, & G. Roche (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of language revitalization (pp. 127–136). Routledge.
44. Hornberger, N. H. (2002). Multilingual language policies and the continua of biliteracy: An ecological approach. Language Policy, 1(1), 27–51. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014548611951
45. Hyltenstam, K., Bartning, I., & Fant, L. (Eds.). (2018). High-level language proficiency in second language and multilingual contexts. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316809686
46. Ishihara, N., & Cohen, A. D. (2021). Teaching and learning pragmatics: Where language and culture meet (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003168188
47. Jenni, B., Anisman, A., McIvor, O., & Jacobs, P. (2017). An exploration of the effects of mentor-apprentice programs on mentors’ and apprentices’ wellbeing. International Journal of Indigenous Health, 12(2), 25–42. https://doi.org/10.18357/ijih122201717783
48. Johnson, S. M. K. (2012). Kwu sqwaʔqwaʔálx (we begin to speak): Our journey within N’syilxcn (Okanagan) language revitalization. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 35(1), 79–97. https://doi.org/10.14288/cjne.v35i1.196545
49. Johnson, S. M. K. (2017). Syilx language house: How and why we are delivering 2,000 decolonizing hours in Nsyilxcn. Canadian Modern Language Review, 73(4), 509–537. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.4040
50. Larsen-Freeman, D. (2018). Looking ahead: Future directions in, and future research into, second language acquisition. Foreign Language Annals, 51(1), 55–72. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12314
51. Madison, C. (2021, February 12). The one exercise that helped me to speak French fluently. Language Lords. https://languagelords.com/speak-french-fluently
52. Malovrh, P. A., & Benati, A. G. (Eds.). (2018). The handbook of advanced proficiency in second language acquisition. Wiley Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119261650
53. McCarty, T. L. (2012). Indigenous language revitalization. In J. Banks (Ed.), Encyclopedia of diversity in education (pp. 1172–1176). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452218533
54. McIvor, O. (2015). Adult Indigenous language learning in Western Canada: What is holding us back? In K. Michel, P. Walton, E. Bourassa, & J. Miller (Eds.), Our living languages: Papers from the 19th Stabilizing Indigenous Languages Symposium (pp. 37–49). Linus Learning. http://hdl.handle.net/1828/11709
55. McIvor, O. (2020). Indigenous language revitalization and applied linguistics: Parallel histories, shared futures? Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 40, 78–96. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190520000094
56. Meyer, M. A. (2014). Indigenous and authentic: Hawaiian epistemology and the triangulation of meaning. In N. Denzin, Y. Lincoln, & L. T. Smith (Eds.), Handbook of critical and Indigenous methodologies (pp. 217–232). SAGE Publications Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483385686
57. Noels, K. A., Pelletier, L. G., Clément, R., & Vallerand, R. J. (2000). Why are you learning a second language? Motivational orientations and self-determination theory. Language Learning, 50(1), 57–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/0023-8333.00111
58. Norton, B. (2013). Identity and language learning: Extending the conversation (2nd ed.). Multilingual Matters.
59. Olthuis, M. L., Kivelä, S., & Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2013). Revitalising Indigenous languages: How to recreate a lost generation. Multilingual Matters.
60. Pine, A., & Turin, M. (2017). Language revitalization. In Oxford encyclopedia of linguistics. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.8
61. Rātima, M. (2013). Kia matatau ki te reo: Factors influencing the development of proficiency in te reo Māori with adult learners [Doctoral dissertation, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand.]. https://hdl.handle.net/10289/7396
62. Rātima, M., & Papesch, T. R. (2014). Te Rita Papesch: Case study of an exemplary learner of Māori as an additional language. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 17(4), 379–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2013.806431
63. Richards, J. (2008). Moving beyond the plateau: From intermediate to advanced levels in language learning. Cambridge English Research & Methodology Booklets. https://www.professorjackrichards.com/wp-content/uploads/moving-beyond-the-plateau.pdf
64. Riddell, J. K., Salamanca, A., Pepler, D. J., Cardinal, S., & McIvor, O. (2017). Laying the groundwork: A practical guide for ethical research with Indigenous communities. International Indigenous Policy Journal, 8(2), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.18584/iipj.2017.8.2.6
65. Rosborough, T. P., & Rorick, čuucqa L. (2017). Following in the footsteps of the wolf: connecting scholarly minds to ancestors in Indigenous language revitalization. AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples, 13(1), 11–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/1177180116689031
66. Schmidt, R. (2001). Attention. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 3–32). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139524780
67. Tedick, D. J., Christian, D., & Fortune, T. W. (Eds.). (2011). Immersion education: Practices, policies, possibilities. Multilingual Matters.
68. Tie, Y., Birks, M., & Francis, K. (2019). Grounded theory research: A design framework for novice researchers. Sage Open Medicine, 7. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6318722/
69. Underwood, G. D. (2017). SX̱ENIEṈ YEW̱ ȻNEs I, TW̱E SENĆOŦEN?— How is it that I have come to speak SENĆOŦEN?: My reflections on learning and speaking SENĆOŦEN [Master’s project, University of Victoria]. https://www.uvic.ca/education/indigenous/assets/docs/david-underwood-2017-final.pdf
70. Wilson, S. (2007). Guest editorial: What is an indigenist research paradigm? Canadian Journal of Native Education, 30(2), 193–195. https://doi.org/10.14288/cjne.v30i2.196422
71. Wilson, S. (2008). Research is ceremony: Indigenous research methods. Fernwood Publishing.
72. Wilson, W. H. (2018). Higher education in Indigenous language revitalization. In L. Hinton, L. Huss, & G. Roche (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of language revitalization (pp. 89–93). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315561271
73. Winke, P. (2022). How to reach advanced language proficiency. ACTFL Research Briefs. https://www.actfl.org/research/research-briefs/how-to-reach-advanced-language-proficiency
74. Wong, L. L. C., & Nunan, D. (2011). The learning styles and strategies of effective language learners. System, 39(2), 144–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2011.05.004