1 Public lectures were an important form of scientific communication during the 19^th century in Britain (Inkster 1980; Lightman 2007) and North America (Rossiter 1971; Scott 1980). In Britain, Canada and the United States of America, mechanics’ institutes, natural history societies, and other organizations popularized geology and other sciences for the public. Inkster (1975, p. 451) provided an interesting review of science education at mechanics’ institutes in Britain, and noted a general agreement amongst researchers that the “institutions plumbed the depths of failure as providers of scientific education and facilities”. While the mechanics’ institutes may at times have been criticized for presenting lectures at too high a level for a general audience, lectures in Saint John were in demand and well attended by local audiences for almost a century at the Saint John Mechanics’ Institute, and later at the Natural History Society of New Brunswick and other venues.

2 In the eastern USA communities of all sizes established lecture societies. Lecturers included local citizens, itinerant lecturers, and professionals like Benjamin Silliman (1779–1864) from Yale University who drew audiences of 2 000 at the Lowell Institute in Boston (Rossiter 1971). Public science lectures in the USA were mostly in New England. They began in the 1830s as free lectures, evolving to fee-based and society-sponsored events (Scott 1980). In the beginning lectures were mostly presented by local speakers. Later they developed into lecture circuits given by itinerant speakers who travelled to communities, providing practical knowledge and entertainment for the public. Lecturing was often a means to develop a professional career, a lecturer’s success in part determined by attracting paying audiences.

3 Geological science has long been an important part of science culture in the Maritime Provinces of eastern Canada (Bogaard 1990; Williams and Fensome 2001; Miller and Buhay 2014), a region that produced some of the country’s leading 19^th century geologists including Sir William Dawson (Eakins and Eakins 1990). In the 19^th century significant discoveries were made in Nova Scotia at places like Joggins (Falcon-Lang 2006) and in New Brunswick at localities including Green Head (Miller 2003) and Ratcliffe Brook (Miller and Buhay 1988). Popularization of science, including geology, was also part of Maritime Canada culture in the 1800s, although on a smaller scale than that seen in Great Britain and the USA. In New Brunswick local scientists contributed to scientific knowledge of citizens (MacNaughton 1947). Geology lectures in particular remained the purview of local professional geologists, knowledgeable amateurs, and even individuals with little geological training.

4 In Saint John, geology lectures for the public began as early as 1824 when Dr. William Hunt’s lecture series was reported in the New Brunswick Courier (20 December 1823) “We understand Dr. Hunt purposes to give Six Lectures on Chemistry and Geology, premised with a short Dissertation on the modern nomenclature of the Materia Chemica. The Nitrous Oxide, or Exhilarating Gas to be exhibited, and its nature and properties explained, and during the course a number of experiments will be attempted illustrative of Chemical Phenomena. The arrangement and position of the Primary and Secondary Rocks, &c. will be illustrated by Drawings done expressly for the purpose. The whole intended to excite the …[?]... to useful study, to facilitate the approach to scientific knowledge as connected with the improvements of the arts. Tickets to Subscribers for the course will be Four Dollars. As an accommodation to persons who may wish to attend a particular Lecture they can be admitted by Tickets for the evening. Should it be found that Six Lectures are insufficient to finish the intended course, they will be continued till it is completed, without additional expense to Subscribers”.

5 Hunt was a physician from the USA, but lived in Saint John for some time. He also worked as an artist and produced a well-known panoramic of the city in 1835, drawn from the bell tower of Trinity Church. Dr. Hunt delivered his last lecture on a Saturday evening as reported in the City Gazette (5 February 1824) “Communicated. – On Saturday evening next, Dr. Hunt will give his concluding Lecture. (Geology;) illustrated by Drawings of primitive and secondary formations. ““If the practical utility of Geology be questioned, nothing is more easily demonstrated; and it augers well that its pursuit in this respect is daily extending. To refer to two or three instances only, to mining, farming, and building””. That these Provinces contain valuable minerals there can be little doubt, and it requires but a small share of study, to acquire sufficient knowledge to form a judgement where the probability exists of their deposition; but when found it requires a further knowledge to ascertain whether the research or working, will be attended with profit or advantage, and this knowledge may be considered as altogether comprised in that of Chemistry.” Although no reports have been found concerning the lectures, they were presumably a financial success for Hunt, as it appears he completed his lecture series.

6 Aside from Hunt, who spent only a short time in Saint John and returned to the USA, many of the popularizers of geology throughout the rest of the century were local citizens active in either the Saint John Mechanics’ Institute (Acheson 1985; Hewitt 1988, 1990), or later as members of the Natural History Society of New Brunswick. Occasional visitors lectured about geology before the institute, but not as part of the regular “lecture circuit” common in New England. We suggest that Saint John, and to a lesser extent the University of New Brunswick in Fredericton, had such a local wealth of geoscientists, that “foreign” lecturers were not needed to fill the roster of geological lectures. Other topics did draw itinerant lecturers to speak on a variety of themes, so apparently the community was a financially successful stop for lecturers. One of the most famous visitors was playwright, poet, and author Oscar Wilde (1854–1900) who spoke to an audience at the Mechanics’ Institute in 1882 (Soucoup 1997).

7 In the early 1800s publishers in Britain began to produce scientific literature for public consumption (Lightman 2007). In the USA magazines like Popular Science Monthly (New York) informed people about advances in science and technology. In New Brunswick these publications were available to wealthier citizens, but also to a wider public through the libraries of mechanics’ institutes and natural history societies that had developed in larger communities. By far the largest institutions were located in Saint John where the Saint John Mechanics’ Institute (1838–1890) and the Natural History Society of New Brunswick (1862– 1932) developed libraries for their members and the public. Magazines and journals such as The Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, Geographical Journal, Geological Magazine, and Science, and bulletins of foreign societies like the Yorkshire Geological Society and the Essex Institute were available in reading rooms and for loan to members (Buhay and Miller 2010). In this paper we provide an overview of the geoscience lecture scene in Saint John during the 19^th to early 20th century.

8 During the 1830s to 1850s the Saint John Mechanics’ Institute was the primary institution hosting geological lectures in Saint John. In addition to providing library resources to the community, public lectures on various topics were an important part of the Institute founded in 1838 (Hewitt 1988, 1990). In 1840 the Institute opened a new building on Carleton Street (Fig. 1a) and when finished in 1841 the building had eight classrooms and a hall capable of seating 800 people (Acheson 1985). Early on geology became a staple of scientific instruction and lectures (Appendix 1), due in large part to Dr. Abraham Gesner (1797–1864), the first Provincial Geologist in New Brunswick and an active member of the Institute (Russell 1976; Miller and Buhay 2007a; Miller et al. 2012). Gesner must have been an inspiring presenter. In spite of his detractors, the newspaper wrote very favourable accounts of his lectures, N.B. Courier (6 April 1839) “Geology. – Dr. Gesner’s Lectures on Geology continue to excite much interest. His day course is most respectably attended by ladies and gentlemen. The lecture delivered before the Mechanics’ Institute on Monday evening last, on the origin of coal, evinced a perfect knowledge on the subject, on the part of the Lecturer; and the clear, animated, and eloquent manner in treating on this interesting topic, afforded the highest satisfaction to his delighted audience. The next Lecture before the Institute will be given on Monday evening next”. He was certainly popular enough that he returned to the institute numerous times, and presented entire series about geology to Saint John audiences as a paid lecturer, N.B. Courier (29 February 1840) and Weekly Observer (3 March 1840) “ADVERTISEMENT: Lectures on Geology. A course of Lectures on Geology will be commenced on Thursday next, the 5th of March, at Foster’s Long Room, Germain Street, at 3 P.M., in which the Science will be ellucidated with sections, drawings, rocks, minerals, fossils, and other objects of Natural History. The Geology of New Brunswick will also be considered, and demonstrated by its own native rocks and remarkable organic remains. Family tickets, 20s.; single tickets, 10s. for the course; tickets for single lectures, 2s. 6d. - to be had at Messrs. V.H. Nelson & Co.’s Book Store. February 29th, 1840 A. Gesner”. Other local lecturers included Robert Foulis (1796–1866), more an engineer and artist than geologist, he presented geology to the public at the Mechanics’ Institute (MacKinnon 1976; Wright and Miller 1990), Weekly Observer (17 February 1852) “Mr. Foulis delivered an interesting lecture, last evening, at the Mechanics’ Institute, on Geological Phenomena”. During the 1830s to early 1840s these two men likely provided most of the geology-themed lectures at the institute (Fig. 2).

9 At times the Institute was visited by other leading regional scientists like James Robb (1815–1861) from the University of New Brunswick (Bailey 1976) where he lectured on broad subjects of geology. In 1857 he spoke at Kings College in Fredericton about “Rocks constituting the Earth’s crust”… “Minerals forming Rocks; Fossils, their nature and value; Petrifaction; Palaeontology; Classification of Rocks according to origin and age; Aqueous” among other basic principle of geology” (Royal Gazette – 11 February 1857). The newspaper advertised these lectures in Fredericton as daily at 1pm. It is likely that Robb spoke on similar topics to Saint John audiences. Bailey (1976) reported that the citizens of Saint John requested Robb deliver a course in mineralogy over the Christmas break of 1841.

10 Robb’s successor Loring Woart Bailey (1839–1925) (Bailey 1925; Young 2005) continued the tradition as soon as he arrived in New Brunswick in 1860 and lectured to Saint John audiences in the middle of winter, Morning Journal (19 February 1860) “Professor Bailey’s most admirable lecture is completed in our present issue. We need not point out to our intelligent readers how grand and elevating are the views of creation and of the primeval history of our own Province which it discloses, period after period, until it became fit for man’s abode; nor how important it must be to the students of the University to receive such instructions - nor, lastly, how beneficial to us in a moral, scientific material and economic point of view, must be a thorough Geological survey, which can be carried on step by step, according to our means. It is quite too bad that no arrangements were made for having the work carried on last summer and fall as in previous years”. In 1862 Professor Bailey delivered at least three geology lectures from January 6 to 13 (Appendix 1). William Bunting, recording secretary for the Institute, noted in his diary on 24 January 1862 acknowledgement of a receipt from Bailey for $40 paid to him by the Institute (NBM Archives S54a -4, Bunting, William Franklin, Diary Vol. 1, 1858–1864). Although Bunting does not say what the payment was for, we might assume it was compensation to Bailey for his lectures. Bailey continued to lecture to the Institute on occasion as evidenced by the report in the Morning Journal (23 December 1868) and N.B. Reporter (25 December 1868) “Prof. Bailey’s elaborate and instructive lecture on “”Volcanoes””, at the Institute on Monday attracted a fine audience, who must have acquired a great deal of valuable information. It was illustrated by diagrams kindly furnished by the Lieutenant-Governor”, however most of his lectures in later years were presented to the Natural History Society of New Brunswick.

11 Bailey’s rival Henry Youle Hind (1823–1908) conducted geological work for various surveys in western Canada and also for the Province of New Brunswick (Jarrell 1994). He too presented talks in Saint John, Headquarters (26 April 1865) “Geological Survey. – We publish from the Maine Press an article reviewing a lecture delivered by Professor Hind, in St. John, sometime in the beginning of this year, during the election excitement. Under different circumstances the lecture would, no doubt, have received the attention it merited. As the subject interests our Yankee neighbours as nearly as ourselves, it is not surprising that it should have attracted their attention. Professor Hind has made during the course of last year extensive explorations throughout the Province, and will lay the result of his labours before the House, in the shape of a preliminary report, giving a general view, in a systematic shape, of the geological features of the Province. It will be then for the House to determine whether they shall have, by a practical man, and a man of some note, and who can devote his whole time to the work, a thorough and practical survey. It is not a work that can be performed in a season, but will take several, and money will be well and judiciously expended in helping to execute such a work. We believe such a survey would be of the greatest possible benefit to the Province. It would give a correct view - and in the shape for reference - of the extent and value of its mineral resources, in which it is undoubtedly rich, and enable the Government to set a right value on the Crown lands of the Province, which are now disposed of utterly regardless of the unknown riches which may be buried under them. We are sure the subject will receive the unbiased attention its great importance demands”.

12 Other science topics were presented by visitors like biologist Asa Gray (1810–1888) from Boston and the English agricultural scientist James Finlay Weir Johnston (1796–1855) (Wynn 1985). Other well-known geologists visited Saint John; Edouard de Verneuil (1805–1873) President de la Société Géologique de France saw Gesner’s Museum collection in May 1846 (Novascotian – 24 May 1846), and Charles Lyell was in Saint John on September 9–10, 1852 (Miller and Buhay 2007b), but there is no evidence that either lectured at the Institute.

13 Ultimately lectures of a scientific nature proved to be controversial as the Mechanics’ Institute focus was more on technical training of a practical nature for its members (Fig. 3). Although geology had become a regular part of scientific instruction, geology or perhaps Gesner, became a target for those members whose interests were elsewhere (Miller and Buhay 2007a). For years there had been turmoil between the executive of the Mechanics’ Institute and the general membership. Part of the crisis concerned a disagreement about whether the institute should provide scientific or technical instruction (Acheson 1985), a debate not restricted to the Saint John Mechanics’ Institute (Inkster 1975). Interestingly lecture topics including medicine, religion and those with more entertainment value like phrenology continued at the Institute while geology topics faded.

14 Perhaps one reason for the apparent reduction of geology lectures at the Saint John Mechanics’ Institute was the founding of the Natural History Society of New Brunswick (1862–1932) in Saint John in 1862. The two organizations shared a building at various times (Buhay and Miller 2010) and had overlapping membership and audiences. The Society was a leading scientific organization of its time with international ties and a close relationship to the Geological Survey of Canada (Zaslow 1975). Several of its members moved to Ottawa to join the Survey. Many of its original members were geologists, although the Society studied and published in all areas of natural science and developed large collections in botany, geology and zoology and also cultural artifacts (McTavish 2013). The Society was founded on the work of young geologists who had formed the Steinhammer Club in 1857 (Miller and Buhay 1988). Sir John William Dawson (1820–1899), who was active with the Natural History Society of Montreal (Phillipson 1988; Sheets-Pyenson 1996; Eakins and Eakins 1990), encouraged Steinhammer Club members to form a similar society in Saint John. Dawson worked closely with them and, impressed with their geological work, he used the research of Charles Frederic Hartt (1840–1878) (Squires 1972; Brice 1994) and George Frederic Matthew (1837–1923) (Miller and Buhay 1988; Miller 2003, 2005) concerning Cambrian trilobites and Upper Carboniferous plants and insects in the second edition of Acadian Geology (Dawson 1868; Miller and Buhay 1988; Falcon-Lang and Miller 2007). As an amateur society away from the major centres of science in Canada, the Society was both energetic and resourceful in developing its own research capabilities and in dissemination of scientific knowledge to the public. They developed their own library and collections (Buhay and Miller 2010) and often shared resources with the local Mechanics’ Institute that had its own, library, museum and tradition of public lectures on a range of topics including science.

15 The geology component of the Mechanics’ Institute museum was based largely on the “Gesner’s Museum” collection established as one of the first public museums in Canada on 5 April 1842. The Institute collection was later acquired by the Natural History Society of New Brunswick in 1890 where the specimens became part of the larger collection of the Society (Miller and Buhay 2007a). In the early 1900s they purchased their own building in Uptown Saint John (Fig 1b). During its years of operation (1862–1932), the Natural History Society of New Brunswick had a bulletin to publish their scientific research papers and record their activities. Regular and Corresponding Society members had their papers read before meetings and the Society developed an active public “elementary” lecture program (Figs. 4, 5). Between 1862 and 1917 the Bulletin records 709 lectures read before the Society and 105 elementary lectures delivered to a broader audience (Appendix 1). Lectures, supported by the research activities of Society members, were often at the leading edge of scientific discovery. Although much of the member’s research was related to the museum collection, especially in later years with Matthew’s Cambrian palaeontology research, Society members also studied and reported on meteorology, physics, hydrogeology, sea level and tides, physiography, seismology, and provided observational data on plant and animal distribution.

16 The Society corresponded with scientific societies in Canada and the eastern United States, as well as in Europe. Among its other distinguished members were botanist George Upham Hay (1843–1913) (Clayden 1998), ornithologist Montague Chamberlain (1844–1924), geographer William Francis Ganong (1864–1941) (Wynn 1981), glacial geologist Robert J. Chalmers (1833–1908) (Brookes 2008), and palaeontologist William Diller Matthew (1871–1930), George Matthew’s oldest son (Colbert 1992; Miller 1994). Member’s papers appeared in such journals as the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, Canadian Record of Science, American Journal of Science, Geological Magazine, Science and the Botanical Gazette.

17 Society members delivered lectures on a wide range of topics, most often in their area of expertise, but not always. Overall, topics fell into broad areas of Archaeology, Botany, Geology, Palaeontology, Physical Science, Zoology, Collections and other areas less focused on natural history (Fig. 6). Records for early lectures (1863–1881) are sparse, recorded in newspaper reports and in later summaries of the Natural History Society of New Brunswick’s early days (Matthew 1913). Few transcripts exist. The first lecture presented before the Society was by Fred Hartt (Fig. 7) a graduate of Acadia College (Acadia University) in Wolfville, Nova Scotia (Brice 1994) where he studied geology. He spoke to the Society on 25 April 1862 about a topic from his time in Nova Scotia “Gold, and a map of the gold fields of Nova Scotia” (Matthew 1913). Hartt went on to become the first professor of geology at Cornell University and eventually was to direct a geological survey of Brazil begun by Louis Agassiz.

18 In 1877 a devastating fire destroyed much of Saint John and although the collections of the Mechanics’ Institute and Natural History Society survived, the records they kept provide little detail concerning their activities. By the early 1880s however the Society showed renewed vigor. They began to publish a Bulletin and provide better records of museum donations and lectures. The first lecture noted in the new Bulletin, was delivered 1 February 1881 by G.F. Matthew; “Work done by geologists in the province during the past forty-two years” (1882 NHS of NB Bull. No. 1, p. 5). Although he was a young member of the Society at its inception, Matthew grew to become the leader when it came to the geosciences. Even so, an examination of the list of lecturers indicates that many Society members had something to say on geological topics (Appendix 1). The second lecture was by Robert Chalmers, 1 March 1881; “Evidence of glacial action on the shores of the Baie de Chaleur.” (1882 NHS of NB Bull. No. 1, p. 5). In 1883 there was a Standing Committee for Lectures established and the early lectures in geology provided a firm foundation for a lasting legacy of the popularization of geology. Even though many of the lectures were presented before the Society, members came from all walks of life. This was not a case of geologists lecturing to other geologists, but rather a mix of geologists, scientists in other disciplines, businessmen, physicians, tradesmen, and their families. Both men and women presented lectures to the Society and public. Women were significant contributors to the Society, even though they had a separate category as ‘associate’ members (McTavish 2008; Buhay and Miller 2010). In 1887 the Society established a Summer School of Science and a course of lectures on science, to deliver public lectures to non-Society members in an attempt to reach a wider audience –”Another important work undertaken by the society, and now in progress, is the course of lectures on Elementary Natural Science. The series includes nineteen lectures on Chemistry, Mineralogy, Zoology and Botany, and thus far have been well attended.” (1888, NHS of NB Bull. No. 7, p. 76). Geology lectures were often presented as a series, and although we have little specific information about them, the newspapers often mentioned the lectures. In 1862, the first year of the Natural History Society of New Brunswick, Bailey delivered a geology lecture series at the Mechanics’ Institute (N.B. Courier – 11 January 1862; Appendix 1), in the same building where the new Natural History Society met. At the end of the century Society members like Matthew were still delivering geology lecture series, Gazette (26 January 1897) “Natural History Society. – Dr. Geo. F. Matthew will deliver the second lecture of his elementary course this evening. Subject – Geology from a railway train”.

19 Lectures were not just presented at the Society. George Matthew spoke to public audiences elsewhere, S.J. Daily Sun (22 February 1881) “Surface Geology. - An interesting talk will be given by G.F. Matthew, Esq., this evening in the lecture room of the Young Men’s Christian Association, the subject being Surface Geology. Any person wishing to attend can obtain tickets free by calling at the Secretary’s office any time before the lecture.” Loring Bailey gave an interesting lecture course at church, a venue not uncommon in England (Inkster 1975), N.B. Reporter (7 December 1889) “Our Earth. - The St. John Globe says that the first lecture of the Church of England Institute course was delivered Monday night in Trinity church school room by Prof. L.W. Bailey. The lecture was very instructive and entertaining, the subject being The Earth We Live On. A great number of views were shown with the magic lantern. Mr. Farren having charge of it. They included astronomical views and views of various parts of the earth, showing the glacial and carboniferous periods. Rev. Canon Brigstocke presided. The lecturer was tendered a hearty vote of thanks”.

20 The Daily Telegraph (Mar. 3, 1892) reported on a lecture with a rather remarkable content presented as a “University Extension Course”. – The lecture on geology last evening by Mr. G.F. Matthew was given to an account of the Devonian and carboniferous ages, and was prefaced by an outline of the classification of plants found on the earth at the present day. Of those that existed now, only certain types had appeared in the early times. The chief among these were representations of the club mosses, ferns, pines and horsetails. Some other striking types as the sigillaria and the cordaites were described. Besides this outline of plants, a sketch was given of the principal divisions of the fishes, of which all but the telcosts or cycloids (bony scaled fishes) were found in carboniferous and Devonian times. The coal measures were the most remarkable features of the carboniferous deposits in this country, and the Devonian is remarkable for its gigantic placid fishes, though in that neighbourhood it was not the fishes that made it remarkable, but the plants, of which many perfect specimens were found near St. John. The carboniferous was remarkable for large numbers of fishes with rhombic long scales. With the close of Cambrian time he passed to a new order of things, when reptiles, etc., were found, and the plants began to resemble more nearly those of modern times”.

21 A week later the newspaper reported, Evening Gazette (Mar. 9, 1892) “This Evening. - The sixth lecture of the course in geology will begin at the Natural History society rooms this evening at eight o’clock; subject, History of the Secondary and Tertiary Ages of Geology”.

22 In this relatively small community, with a population of about 23 000 in the 1850s (Hewitt 1988), the Mechanics’ Institute and the Natural History Society of New Brunswick had built a substantial resource of both infrastructure (lecture rooms, libraries, and museum collections) (Buhay and Miller 2010) and talented people. The teaching of geology to public audiences had begun at least by the 1820s, and was still active a century later. Lecturers were largely drawn from the local community and comprised professional geologists, very talented ‘amateurs’ and interested individuals. Geology lectures covered a variety of topics from the theoretical understanding of the Earth, to the practical nature of identification of minerals and rocks, to the application of geology to mining in New Brunswick, to the ground-breaking discovery of fossils by local geologists (Appendix 1). Although the majority of lectures were in Saint John they were not exclusive to the city. Fredericton, with its university where Robb and Bailey were professors, had public lectures in geology, as did St. Andrews, Bathurst, and Chatham. Some Society members like Geoffrey Stead (1872–1943) maintained their connection after they moved away from Saint John, and continued to contribute papers to Society meetings. Stead was a corresponding member from Chatham, New Brunswick (Appendix 2), when in early 1905 he presented a lecture ‘Notes on a grindstone quarry at Stonehaven, N.B’ (Fig. 8). A longtime member of the Society, Stead was twice the president of the Association of Professional Engineers of New Brunswick (now the Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of New Brunswick).

23 It might be surprising to note how many influential scientists were associated with the Mechanics’ Institute or the Natural History Society of New Brunswick (Appendix 2). Many were famous away from home, but had started their careers in Saint John, developed many of their skills as members of the Institute or Society, and maintained a long association with the organizations. Biographies of many of the people can be found in the Dictionary of Canadian Biography, The Canadian Encyclopedia, and in biographical works dedicated to individuals (see reference list); a testament to the importance they had in Canadian society and in international circles. Aside from Ottawa, Montreal and Toronto, where else in Canada was there such a congregation of pioneering geologists?

24 Were the lectures they delivered current with the geological science of the day? Unfortunately for most lectures transcripts do not exist. With the exception of lectures ‘read before the society’ at the Natural History Society of New Brunswick, little but the title is known. However we surmise that given the expertise of many of the lecturers (Appendix 2), the science was current. Newspaper stories, such as in the Daily Telegraph (Mar. 3, 1892) noted above provide some idea of the nature of the lectures. In the earlier days of the Mechanics’ Institute Abraham Gesner was a regular lecturer. Like many geoscientists of his day, Gesner was a physician (Lewis 2009), and was trained by John Abernethy (1764–1831) at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital in London in 1825. At the same time Abernethy had also mentored the English botanist and palaeontologist Richard Owen (1804–1892) known for coining the term Dinosauria and helping to establish the British Museum (Natural History). For a short period Gesner was in the circles of British geology in London before he returned to Canada. His lectures on geology at the Mechanics’ Institute were given while he was mapping the geology of New Brunswick and his later experiments to develop kerosene and become a founder of the modern petroleum industry suggest he was well versed in geoscience (Miller and Buhay 2007a; Miller et al. 2012). Some of his lectures were reportedly entertaining and sensational, such as that recounted by Hewitt (1988) where Gesner, speaking on “Galvanism” passed an electric current through the head of recently dead ox before an audience of 900 people.

25 At the Natural History Society of New Brunswick people like George Matthew were not just leaders in the local community; they were at the forefront of geology. Matthew corresponded regularly with international scientists including C.D. Walcott (1850–1927) at the United States Geological Survey and J. Barrande (1799–1883) in Prague (Miller and Buhay 1990), and worked closely with the Geological Survey of Canada for many decades. Among his accomplishments Matthew was one of the first palaeontologists to describe ‘small shelly fossils’ at the base of Cambrian. Robert Chalmers was a Canadian pioneer in the study of surficial geology. In his 1885 report for the Geological Survey of Canada, concerning the ice age deposits of the Saint John River valley, he was the first geologist to use the term ‘kames’ in Canada (Brookes 2008). On May 4, 1886, his lecture to the Natural History Society was titled ‘The Kames and Terraces of New Brunswick’. Another Society member Wilmer Duff presented only a few lectures leaning toward geophysics (Appendix 1). Duff’s A Textbook on Physics, first published in 1908, was the leading physics textbook in American universities for 30 years.

26 Determining the impact lectures had on the community is difficult. Inkster (1980) argued that in the case of the United Kingdom the reception that lectures received by the audiences were based upon factors related to both the lecturers and the audience. He stated that for the audience these were intelligence, prior knowledge, motivation, sympathy, alternatives, social composition, and status. On the part of the lecturer pedagogic style and expertise, value of knowledge, and nature of the subject were important factors. Our conclusion that lectures resonated with the public and satisfied these factors is based largely on their success, as they continued to draw audiences from the 1840s to the early 1900s; the success of the Natural History Society as an organization; the regular newspaper coverage of the events; and the esteem with which the lecturers were often afforded in the community.

27 A point made in that same study (Inkster 1980), partly true in New Brunswick, is that audiences outside the formal education venue were often hearing from the same lecturers as university students. Perhaps public audiences were often treated to more current information as lectures were not tied to a standard curriculum. We suggest it is not so dissimilar today since news media stories about new research may reach the public long before it can be incorporated into textbooks and curricula. In Saint John there was no other government institution or university conducting original scientific research so the work of the Natural History Society of New Brunswick reached the local audience first.

33 New Brunswick, particularly Saint John, has a long history of popularization of geology dating to the 1820s when the first lecture series that included geology was presented to a public audience. For almost a century after the Saint John Mechanics’ Institute and the Natural History Society of New Brunswick presented hundreds of lectures to audiences comprised of institutional members and the general public. Lectures ranged from general topics of geology to leading edge discoveries made in New Brunswick. In this relatively small community there was an abundance of knowledgeable people disseminating geosciences information to the public. In this century it is interesting to note some of the lecture topics. In 1863 G. Sinclair lectured on “Certain Theories concerning the Origin of Species” (Matthew 1913), just a few years after Darwin’s On the Origin of Species in 1859. Robert Matthew’s 1865 lecture “Minerals, what we do with them and what we might do” (Matthew 1913) could easily be a topic today. J.A.S. Henderson spoke about “Natural Gas: Its Development and Possibilities” (1914 NHS of NB Bull. No. 31, p. 80) in 1913 as part of a special lecture course, a topic very relevant today as New Brunswick considers its gas industry and hydraulic fracturing. One wonders if the citizens of 19^th century Saint John could have been more Earth Science literate than they are today.