GLEN NICHOLS
The multi-level problems associated with the transformation of dramatic texts from one cultural context to another are examined in this paper, with reference to adaptations of popular European plays made specifically for use by all-male amateur groups in Quebec at the end of the 19th century. Some suggestions are offered concerning the general kinds of information to be gleaned from close multi-text analysis, the specific cultural indicators gatheredfrom this particular study, and the possibility of developing a usable 'theory of adaptation.'
Cet article traite des problèmes posés à plusieurs niveaux par la transformation de textes dramatiques d'un contexte culturel à un autre. On y examine en particulier plusieurs pièces européennes et populaires adaptées spécifiquement pour des cercles dramatiques de jeunes gens au Québec à la fin du 19e siècle. Ayant proposé certaines conclusions quant aux données qu'offre un tel examen, et en particulier quant aux indicateurs socio-culturels qui ressortissent d'une analyse minutieuse de tels textes multiples, l'auteur explore la possibilité de développer ainsi une « théorie d'adaptation » praticable.
In traditional Western theatre criticism there has always been intense debate over the nature of the relationship between 'texts' and 'performance.' This paper presents a unique approach to this ancient question using as its basis a sampling of texts taken from a relatively large and coherently consistent body of dramatic adaptations: plays created from foreign works specifically for amateur productions during the last quarter of the nineteenth century in Quebec. This period covers the apogee of both the parochial amateur theatre movement in Quebec and the predominance of this type of play adaptation for such groups. The purpose of this presentation is twofold: first of all, to demonstrate the usefulness of multi-text analysis in understanding historical dramaturgy; and second, to advance some observations concerning the theoretical aspects of dramatic adaptations.
The fundamental premise of the demonstration is very simple: there is a clear parallel between the kinds of relationships inherent in the basic text/performance dichotomy and those inherent among the versions of multitext adaptations. Patrice Pavis supports this position when he discusses adaptation as a 'travail dramaturgique A partir du texte destiné à être mis en scène' and, alternatively, as 'une traduction qui adapte le texte de départ au contexte nouveau de sa réception avec les suppressions et les ajouts jugés nécessaires A sa réévaluation.1 By working through the second type of analysis, something I hope to dernonstate as both fruitful and valid, meaningful observations can be made concerning the nature of the first. The connections between theoretical approaches and practical applications are always problematic; however, I believe these difficulties may be mitigated by concentrating on a definable and sizeable corpus of fairly consistent adaptations created with very explicit ends in mind.
The examples will be drawn from the several thousand individual textual emendations collected in my recent detailed analysis of seventeen plays representative of the approximately seventy-five titles which comprise the total number of these French-Canadian amateur adaptations from the period .2 These adaptations are remarkably homogeneous in style and substance; originally popular foreign (particularly French) plays of the day were made suitable for production by local amateurs through the sometimes radical alteration of linguistic, visual, character and plot elements. These changes were executed by various adaptors for a number of related and consistent social, religious, educational, and practical considerations on behalf of the anticipated Québécois participants, both performers and audience.
As adaptations intended specifically for amateur production, a factor clearly documented by numerous internal and external features of the texts, these plays were found in the repertoires of the many cercles dramatiques which sprang up around the province.3 The cercles varied in their composition and history, but generally fell into one of two types. First there were the groups closely affiliated with larger parochial or community organizations, and which tended naturally to reflect the religious or social aims of the parent groups. The second type of cercle included independent organizations for which theatrical productions were an adjunct to other literary or artistic interests.4 Throughout the long history of amateur theatricals in Quebec and particularly during the period of these productions, the modification of texts as a direct result of a concern for the perceived morality of the plays and their delivery was of foremost importance.5
By far the largest and most fundamental single group of modifications (though not necessarily the most striking) evident in these adaptations is the vast number of basic linguistic differences that occur between the source and target texts. And, although the changes are not structurally significant, the simple substitution of words, brief phrases or punctuation can yield a great deal of insight into the nature of the transference of these texts as well as into the world of the amateur theatre milieu for which they were written.
Of particular note in the discussion of these fundamental modifications is the play Le Siege de Colchester which together with Les Cousins du député yielded more than one third of all the vocabulary modifications found in the seventeen plays surveyed.6 Almost every page of the text reveals an abundance of changes which would have altered the play's production to varying degrees. To capture the sense of just how dense these changes are, and to give a compact overview of the wide range of possible modifications, a condensed version of the final page of the play text is reproduced below indicating the various adjustments. By demonstrating his profound friendship for Arthur and against the wishes of his Parliamentarian father (Fairfax), Edmond has managed to save the life of his friend who had committed no other crime than to be the son of a Royalist (Capell). The play closes with a cry to arms: 7
*Due to the irregularities of the text the decision was made to view the altered text in a pdf format. The Text picks up once again where the text is unaltered. Sorry for any inconvience. pdf
Footnotes8 and9 are held witin the body of the pdf file.
The moment in the target text is clearly a much simpler one, with only one exchange between Glenarvan and Archibald. When the elder takes up arms it creates an unequivocal sense of heroism and valour. In contrast, the source scene is comic because this 'fragile' lady not only decides to set aside her emotional exhibitionism (disclosing the true nature of her character's pretense), but also bravely grabs Paganel's gun and, much to his (and the audience's) surprise, prepares to do battle. The impact of the intentionally funny image of Arabelle taking up a provocative fighting position, especially after everything else the audience has seen of her, contrasts sharply with the much more edifying image presented in the target version, even though the essential plot action is very much the same. The context, both previous and concurrent, and the subtle shadings of the character in question all lend an entirely new sense to the dramatic moment: a sense more in line with McGown's perceptions of appropriate male behaviour and one which displays less potential for relatively innocent and pleasurable humour.
Having assessed a small portion of modification possibilities, it is possible to see how closely interconnected is each level and type of change. On a horizontal scale are the various textual alterations selected according to the adaptors' motivations: Canadianization, morality, gender correction, philosophy, local colour, etc. On a vertical scale are the various degrees of change: from small adjustments in non-demonstrative spelling, through substitutions of basic vocabulary and simplification of grammatical constructions and rhetoric, to major and minor overhauls of the dramatic structures. In order to understand or interpret any one particular change, no matter how apparently insignificant, it must be tested against both of these scales, both independently and cooperatively.
The practical modifications of the technical elements are highly pervasive and very effective in creating distinctly different target plays. They were also, of course, very interdependent in operation. The simplification of language often related directly to the modification of scenic elements which in turn resulted in altered plot structures. The effect was an undeniable propensity for less complex, less difficult plays which moved along with fewer complications of plot and resolved themselves more expediently and predictably. While these modifications appear to have been based largely on a concern for the ability of the amateur groups to recreate the more sophisticated theatrical demands of the source plays, there were also a large number of significant modifications of less pragmatic elements of the plays which reflected other concerns of the adaptors vis-á-vis the sensibilities of the performers and audience.
The ideological outlooks reflected in the target plays differed greatly from those of the source texts. In terms of politics, religion, and morality/philosophy, the target plays clearly strove to reflect the most traditional and conservative positions in the target society. Except for the case of politics, a topic in which a few examples of satire were found, the ideas portrayed in the plays remained firmly unchallenging, even in situations where the ambiguities were very slight indeed.
The close connection of the amateur theatre groups, either directly or indirectly, to the Catholic Church is clearly evident in the ways the ideas of the plays were harmonized to fit the target culture. Any ambiguous depictions of priests or of religious ideas which could have raised even the vaguest question about the 'natural' rightness of contemporary institutions (or even society in general) were replaced with more orthodox portrayals. Being closely tied to religious codes of behaviour, expressions of both moral and philosophical ideas were also modified in a similar manner. Implications of matters such as suicide, blasphemy, the relationship between man and God, suffering, and the problem of illegitimate births, to name only a few, were brought into line with prevailing conservative positions.
The narrowing of the ideological scope of the plays (even the possibility of a protestant heroine was excised!) created an odd sort of philosophical myopia in the texts. Evident to the reader today, thanks to exposure to our contrastingly heterogeneous society, the highly selective view of the world reflected in these plays indicates the conscious ethnocentricity of the adaptors and, perhaps, their charges. While trying to avoid applying late-twentieth century values to these century-old texts and their creators, it is important to see how the adaptation of play texts was used as a means of fostering a particular world view. Indeed, considering the explicit intentions of these adaptors to 'purify' the plays of inappropriate foreign matter as discussed at the outset of this study, such fostering was clearly a principal motivation behind their efforts.
Building on both the practical and moral bases of adaptation, and illustrating most clearly the phenomenal interrelatedness of adaptation methods and effects, the most dominant feature in the target texts is, of course, their overwhelmingly masculinized appearance. Developing out of the most minute technical alterations of language and extending all the way to the most profound modifications of plot structure and character motivation, the gender changes in these plays provide the richest field for analysis. Here the interrelatedness of various dramatic and theatrical factors is the most evident. The apparently simple masculinization of characters, even at the level of seemingly insignificant changes to vocabulary and grammar, necessitated in the minds of the adaptors subsequent modifications of the characters' descriptions and behaviour. These altered conditions resulted in further, otherwise unnecessary, changes to the relationships between various characters, whether masculinized themselves or not. Finally, even though the fundamental plot may still resemble that of the source play, the target text must also subsequently modify the events and action in order to match the new characterizations and relationships.
The plays portray very simplified moral and philosophical decisions, use less challenging language, apply less stimulating visual and aural production standards, and develop a highly orthodox religious and political outlook. These all point to very paternalistic adaptors preparing texts for the use of amateurs whose abilities they obviously regarded with considerable skepticism. The simplified new texts reduce or eliminate the need for the producers to question orthodox thoughts on right and wrong behaviour, to resolve ambiguous moral dilemmas, or to produce even very simple theatrical effects.
There is another side to this situation, however, and an important one to remember. In a limited number of examples, certain adaptors actually demonstrated a considerable ability to create more interesting theatre than that of the source texts. Although these examples comprise only a very small percentage of the total number of modifications, and virtually all of these examples are overwhelmed by the presence of less positive, 'narrowing' alterations, they underscore the dramaturgical potential represented by these adaptations and the amateur theatre milieu.
All of the modifications, in terms of their 'narrowing' effects, could be considered the result of a desire to 'Canadianize' the plays. The overpowering wish to remove undesirable elements from foreign plays in order to make them more appropriate for local use, regardless of the effects on the performance potential of the texts, is clearly a result of the adaptors' particular vision of the nature of the Canadian context. On another level, however, there are a number of modifications which also Canadianize the texts, but do it in a way which expands the theatrical potential.
Operating on both denotative and connotative levels, the addition of 'local colour' to a few of the plays created texts of greater potential for performative interest simply on the grounds of being more in touch with the practical sensibilities of the audience and performers. While the more morally uplifting and religiously correct passages may or may not have reflected the true nature of the young (and older) Québécois performing and viewing the plays, the direct and indirect allusions to Canadian place names, personnages, politics, events, etc., would necessarily have struck familiar and appreciative chords in the audience. This appreciation for the immediate context of the target plays is here demonstrated through positive effects on the plays, unlike its usually negative appearance through most of the other examples from these adaptations.
A second result of this positive approach to the texts was the greater use of the comic mode in a few of the plays, whereas the 'narrowing' modifications usually resulted in truncated comedy if any at all. The adaptors who attempted 'local colour' appeared to be less constrained by the larger issues of textual 'correction,' or perhaps more accurately, they appeared more able to rise above constraints to create plays displaying theatrical appeal as well as moral edification. These two factors, the possibility of positive creativity stemming from a sincere response to the immediate context of the plays and the ability to rise above the pedestrian constraints of moral conformity in an effort to create truly interesting theatre, are very significant.
If, as various critics attest, the amateur stage was indeed the seedbed for the first generation of Quebec theatre professionals, then their roots should be visible in these adaptations. At first glance this would appear not to be the case. Surely really playable theatre could not be rooted in all these untheatrical modifications of second-rate foreign plays! However, even these morally constrained, didactically-conceived plays hint at the presence of real playwrighting skills. Yes, constrained to a formidable moral code and tempered by the daunting responsibility to 'correctly' influence impressionable young minds, many of the adaptors produced much less theatrically satisfying works. However, in order to achieve this 'feat' of diminution, even the most morally-driven adaptor with apparently the least regard for the final performative potential of his works (McGown comes to mind) had to bring to bear a considerable degree of dramaturgical skill. The writing of plays is never easy, but the creation of relatively coherent pieces out of previously existing material is no less demanding, especially considering the significant revamping exhibited by most of these plays. The foundations of true dramaturgical skill can be seen in the dexterity with which these texts were manipulated.
Over and above this, however, is the passion which must have underscored these amateur endeavours and which surfaces ever-so-tantalizingly in the passages of 'local colour.' The educated young men of the cercles faced public doubt and personal risk of a formidable kind. They had very limited resources as attested to by the degree of practical simplifications in the adaptations, and achieved only moderate respect for their interpretative abilities (even from the adaptors who were supposedly on their side). Yet, completely unremunerated and frequently failing, these young men persevered and produced a considerable amount of theatre in a relative short amount of time. The adaptors responded in kind by introducing into these otherwise standardized adaptations, where possible, glimpses of exciting and accessible stage fictions.
While no comprehensive, universally applicable theory of adaptation can reasonably be aspired to as yet, an understanding of the fundamental mechanisms of textual modifications would appear to be a useful starting point when looking at other cross-cultural textual transformations. The attitude of Restoration playwrights towards the texts of continental writers which they frequently adapted for the English stage of the late seventeenth-century, for instance, was of course very different from that of the Canadian adaptors towards French plays of the late nineteenth century. However, the range of technical modifications parallels that of the Canadian experience, and the motivations, while different in detail and effect, are similarily reflected in the differences between the resulting texts and their sources. Similar 'mechanisms' can be seen at work in versions of Shakespearean plays as adapted in different ages, in the Latin adaptations of Greek tragedies by Seneca, and even in modem re-readings of classic plays (Macdonald's Good-night Desdemona, Good Morning, Juliet may be an extreme case, but not without justification), to name a few possible areas of application.
What is more significant than any universal 'theory' is the appreciation of the fact that each adaptation is a reading of the source text within the particular cultural needs and expectations of the target group. Any gain from multi-text analysis will come from an awareness of the individual nature of the motivations and results of the modifications, and will only be most useful within a study of that particular cultural voice.
The texts for this study provided a particularly tidy field of enquiry. The high frequency of adaptations within the period resulted in a dense concentration of relevant examples having a fairly homogeneous cultural background. The limited secondary sources provided important contextual bases for comparison and corroboration. These factors made possible the establishment of prominent adaptation mechanisms. While these do not imply the existence of a universal theory of adaptation, they do perhaps provide a theoretical basis for other analyses of comparable dramatic texts.
NOTES
GLEN NICHOLS
1 PATRICE PAVIS, Dictionnaire du théâtre (Paris, Messidor 1980) p 33
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2 GLEN NICHOLS, 'Textual Adaptations for Amateur Performance in Quebec, 1875-1908' (PhD diss, Univ of Toronto 1992) p 21. Out of the corpus of dramatic works from the period, approximately 75 titles appear likely to have been adaptations. From this group my research managed to confirm about fifty pairs of plays. Out of these, probable locations were discovered for about 75 of 100 separate play-texts (two for each adaptation-pair). Within the time frame of the initial collection period (approximately one year), I was able to acquire 40 of these texts, representing the seventeen complete and confirmed pairs of plays. The range of authors, genres, styles, and types of adaptation approach represented by these particular pairs appears to reflect adequately that of the corpus as a whole, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Most of the Canadian texts are available through the services of the Canadian Institute for Historical
Microreproduction/Institut canadien de microreproductions historiques (CHIM/ICMH). The
French source texts are less accessible, but are generally available at the New York Public
Library drama collection, and in microtext at various libraries around North America and France
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3 'JEAN BERAUD' [pseud JACQUES LAROCHE], 350 Ans de théâtre au Canada français
(Montéal: Cercle du livre de France 1958) pp 91-92; JEAN-MARC LARRUE, Le Théâtre àMontréal à la fin du XIXe sièle (Montréal: Fides 1981) p 97; GEORGES-H ROBERT,
L'Annuaire théâtral (Montréal: G-H Robert 1908) pp 220-22 1; and NICHOLS, pp 3-4, 25-26
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4 LARRUE, p 100; ROBERT, p 213
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5 NICHOLS, pp 5-8 and passim
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6 The reasons behind modifications are not always apparent. It is possible that because the source
play did not require any structural alteration for gender or content reasons (the nature of the
source play, its postscript, and its appearance in the collection L'Ami des enfans clearly points
to its intended consumption by a 'tender' audience), McGOWN was free to spend his energies
making minute adjustments according to his taste and sensibility. Indeed, this may have been his
way of making the play distinct from the source play. These motives alone would seem to
explain many of the textual substitutions
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7 To see footnote in its entirety go to pdf
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8 Note that source references to Guillaume Tell are in the original German since there appears to
have been no intermediate French text. In order to maintain citation consistency I have opted to
use Act, scene, and line numbers for the German text rather than page numbers
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9 For a preliminary survey of the modification of gender in these plays see NICHOLS, chp VI.
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PLAYTEXTS CITED
AVM Les Aventures de Mandrin. Mélodrame en 4 Actes et 5 Tableaux par MM. Alphonse Amault et Louis Judicis. Arrangé pour les Cercles de Jeunes Gens par J.G.W. McGown. Montréal [ 1, 1890
Les Aventures de Mandrin. Mélodrame en cinq Actes et dix Tableaux par MM. Alphonse Amault et Louis Judicis. Paris: Michel Lévy frères [ 18561. Représenté pour la première fois, à Paris, sur le Théâtre de la Gaîté, le 9 mai 1856
CD Les Cousins du député. Comédie de moeurs canadiennes en quatre Actes. Compilée et adaptée par E.-Z. Massicotte. Montréal: C.O. Beauchemin & fils, 1896
On demande un acteur. Farce en un acte par Régis Roy, suivie du fameux discours de Baptiste Tranchemontagne: 'Qu'est-ce que la Politique?' Montréal: C.O. Beauchemin & fils [18961
Crampons de sauvetage Comédie en quatre Actes par l'auteur du 'Voyage à Boulogne-sur-mer.' Paris: André Lesot, [n.d.]
ECG Les Enfants du Capitaine Grant. Pièce en quatre Actes et un Prologue (7 Tableaux) par MM. D'Ennery et Jules Verne. Arrangée pour les Cercles de Jeunes Gens par J.G.W. McGown. Montréal [ ], 1889
Les Enfants du Capitaine Grant pièce en 5 Actes et un Prologue (13 Tableaux) de MM. A. D'Ennery & Jules Veme (in Les Voyages au Théâtre Paris: J. Hetzel et Cie., [ 188 11). Représentée pour la première fois à Paris sur le Théâtre de la Porte-St-Martin, le 26 décembre 1878)
GT Guillaume Tell. Drame en quatre Actes, de Schiller. Nouvel arrangement à l'usage des collèges. A.M.D.G. Montréal: C.O. Beauchemin & fils, 1900
Wilhelm Tell. Friedrich Schiller. München: Rowolht, 1967
JLM Jean le maudit ou le fils du forçat Drame en trois Actes et un Prologue par MM. Marquet, Delbes et 'X.' Arrangée spécialement pour les Cercles de Jeunes Gens par J.G.W. McGown. Montréal: Beauchemin, [n.d.]
Jeanne la maudite. Drame en cinq Actes précédé par La Nuit du meurtre Prologue par MM. Marquet, Delbes et 'X.' Paris: Barbré [18671. Représenté pour la première fois, à Paris, sur le Théâtre Beaumarchais, le 22 juin 1867
MS Michel Strogoff. Pièce à grand spectacle en cinq Actes et huit Tableaux par MM. A. D'Ennery et Jules Verne. Arrangée spécialement pour les Cercles de Jeunes Gens par J.G.W. McGown, Avocat. Montréal [], [n.d.]
Michel Strogoff pièce à grand spectacle en 5 actes et 16 tableaux de MM. A. D'Ennery et Jules Verne (in Les Voyages au théâtre. Représentée pour la première fois à Paris sur le Théâtre du Chàtelet le 17 novembre 1880)
SC Le Siège de Colchester. Drame en un Acte par A. B[erquin]. Revu et publié par J.G.W. McGown. Montréal [ 1, 1891
Le Siège de Colchester dans Oeuvres complètes de Berquin Vol II (L'Ami des Enfans). Paris: Astoin, Biais, Renduell, 1835