14 In the Belcher Islands, as in adjacent Arctic Quebec, the Inuit refer to the Common Eider as mitiq. Beginning with the newly hatched duckling and terminating with the adult male and female, the author (Nakashima, 1991) recorded fourteen distinct terms from Qikirtamiut hunters, each referring to a different age-sex category of the Common Eider. Of these terms, five were utilized by the women when discussing coat construction (Table 3).

15 The skin of the adult male eider is easily distinguishable from others due to its striking jet-black belly that contrasts sharply with a snow-white breast, neck and mantle. To the uninitiated, however, the four remaining age-sex categories are more difficult to differentiate due to their more subtle differences in colouration and patterning. It is understandable therefore that other observers of Qikirtamiut coat construction have failed to distinguish correctly between these eider skins. For the five eider coats collected in the Belcher Islands in 1971, Pharand (n.d.) and Saladin d'Anglure (n.d.) differentiate between only three eider skin types as follows: "amaulik — male eider," "arnaluk — female eider," and "mitigait — eider duck." In her observations of the construction of two coats (for a man and a woman), Jill Oakes (1992: 4) also recognizes only three eider skin types: "male, female and immature male eiders."

16 This failure to recognize the full range of eider skin categories that are salient to Qikirtamiut women introduces certain ambiguities in their analyses and inevitably misrepresents and underestimates the subtlety of Qikirtamiut knowledge. It is likely that the category of "female eider," as designated by Pharand and Saladin d'Anglure, in actual fact includes not only adult and immature females, but also juveniles of both sexes, and perhaps even immature males. Similarly, Oakes' category of "female" probably includes both adult and immature females, as well as juvenile eiders of both sexes.

17 While fretting over such fine distinctions between eider age-sex categories may seem finicky and largely irrelevant to the outsider, this is hardly the case for the Qikirtamiut. When it comes to dividing up the catch from an eider hunt, hunters pay careful attention not only to the number of birds each family receives, but also to the even distribution of juveniles, immatures, sub-adults and adults of both males and females. In similar fashion, Qikirtamiut women sort eider skins available for coat construction according to each eider's age and sex, so as to plan for their optimal deployment among the clothing articles being constructed.

18 What then are the qualities of the skins coming from these five eider age-sex categories? Perhaps the easiest answer is to first describe those skins situated at opposite ends of a spectrum — the skins of adult eider males at one extreme, and juveniles at the other.

19 Among the five eider types listed above, the skin of the amaulik, the adult male, is recognized to be the thickest and the toughest. For this reason, its use is reserved first and foremost for the coats of active hunters. Hunters require clothing that resists tearing and bursting when subject to the strenuous and brusque movements required by the hunt. While praised for their strength and durability, amaulik skins suffer from the fault of being bulky and stiff, due to the thick mass of feathers that constitutes their plumage.

20 The skins of juvenile eiders, or mitiraviniq, contrast in a number of ways with those of adult males. Mitiraviniq are eider fledglings of both sexes that were just hatched the previous summer. The literal meaning of the term is "those that previously were ducklings" or mitiraq. Juvenile skins are supple and fragile. For this reason they are the material of choice for the coats of children. Qikirtamiut women specified that it was important that a child's coat be supple so as not to hamper their movements and be uncomfortable.

21 Juvenile skins are recognized as having another quality in addition to suppleness. Their plumage is less bulky than that of adult birds, the feathers lying flat, closer to the skin surface. This absence of bulk is the main explanation for the use of juvenile skins along the leading edge of men's hoods. Typically a single skin is used for this purpose. It is sliced longitudinally, along the ventral midline, and the halves are positioned on each side of the hood such that the cut edge forms the hood's leading edge. For this particular part of the parka, juvenile eider skins are considered to be the material of choice.

22 Between the extremes of the adult male eider skin — strong but bulky and stiff, and the juvenile skin — supple and sleek but fragile, are arranged the skins of the other eider categories whose strength and suppleness are intermediate in quality. One Qikirtamiut woman ordered skin types according to their strength and resistance to tearing. She stated a preference first and foremost for the skins of the amaulik, the adult male eider, the most durable of eider skins. Lacking this skin type, she then selected tullisaujaq, the immature male eider. If these were in their turn not available, she would then utilize the skins of aknaviak, the adult female eider. If all of these other skins were in short supply she would, as a last resort, use the skins of the aknaviatsaq or immature female eider, which are the least strong of these skin types.

23 It might seem odd to consider qualities of eider skins for winter coat construction and to discuss relative durability, suppleness, plumage bulk, but not relative warmth. When we asked Qikirtamiut about this, they explained that all eider skins are equally warm, so long as they are not torn or punctured. These comments provide an immediate explanation for their preoccupation with the strength and durability of eider skins.

24 Physical properties, however, are not the only consideration. The adult male eider is considered to be wily and difficult to kill. Adult male skins thus serve as a symbol of a man's status, and the man who wears coats made entirely of amaulik skins marks himself as a capable hunter. For this reason, amaulik skins were first reserved for the hunter's outer coat. The outer coat, drawn over an inner coat also made of eider skins, is worn feathered surface outward. When a hunter is on the land in winter, it is the feathered surface of the outer parka that is visible to those around him. An outer parka whose body and sleeves are entirely composed of the distinctive black ventral plumage of the adult male eider thus serves as unmistakable testimony of the man's prowess as a hunter.

25 As the skins of adult male eiders combined physical strength and symbolic importance, they were highly prized and jealously guarded. As one woman qualified while expounding upon the Inuit virtue of sharing:

26 To collect enough adult male eider skins for an entire outer coat (about seventeen skins for the coat's body and sleeves) is not always a simple task, however, and the hunter at times has to be satisfied with a coat of mixed skin types.

27 Inuit not only distinguish between the skins of various eider types, but also discriminate between the parts of the same eider skin, each part having its own particular name and use. The five major named parts relate to the manner in which the skin is cut up for use in clothing production: (1) the qungiak (neck, upper chest and upper back); (2) the timik (breast and belly); (3) the qulusuk (back); (4) the upatik or nuluk (area surrounding the eider's tail — rump and hind belly); and (5) the downy sallik (wing pockets), which are situated on each side of the body between the belly and the back.

28 Through a clever sequence of cuts, the cased eider skin is transformed from a three-dimensional pouch into a more or less flat skin (Fig. 1). After this operation, the large sheet of skin referred to as the timik includes not only the breast and belly, but also most of the upatik, including not only the ventral hind belly, but also the dorsal rump. The timik is the warmest part, undoubtedly due to the fact that the eider spends the greater part of its existence afloat in frigid seas, relying largely upon this ventral cushion of feather and down to remain warm, dry and buoyant. The large timik portion of the eider skin is the principle material for the coat.

29 In contrast, the qulusuk or back skin is much more sparsely feathered and small. It is also thin and fragile as any taxidermist who has ruined a mount by tearing the back skin is apt to know. For these reasons these small portions of skin, trimmed into square or rectangular forms, are reserved for two uses, the sides and back of the hunter's hood and on occasion, the apron and tail of the woman's coat (Nakashima, 1989).

30 The qulusuk offers the advantage of being extremely supple, facilitating, in the case of the hunter's hood, the movement of the head when hooded, as well as the dropping back of the hood onto the shoulders. In the case of the tails of the woman's coat, its flexibility allows free movement of the legs. But this practical consideration may not be the only one, nor the most important. The adult male's qulusuk skins bear the striking pattern of a deep black triangle on a background of white feathers. To form the sides and back of the man's hood, these back skins are sewn one above the other into three vertical strips which are then attached side by side. As the qulusuk skins are all oriented with feathers pointing downwards, the finished product has the pleasing appearance of three ascending rows of deep black triangles against a background of pure white.

31 We turn now to the sallik, the wing pockets located on the bird's sides. The sallik skin bears no quilled contour feathers but only soft down. For this reason, it is reserved for a special task, the patching of holes or tears in eider skins. A hole is patched by sewing a small square of eider skin over the opening. The patch is oriented such that its own downy surface is applied to the unfeathered side of the skin being repaired. The sallik skin is perfect for this task because its feathered surface is free of contour feathers whose stiff vanes prevent a tight, wind-proof seal. Its soft downy feathers, on the other hand, do not interfere with the stitch and prevent the patched area from becoming a cold spot on the coat's surface.

32 The lack of contour feathers makes the sallik skin excellent for patching but less useful for warmth. For this reason these lateral areas of downy skin are trimmed from the sides of the thick and warm breast and belly skin (timik). When skins are plentiful, only a very narrow band of sallik skin is left along each side of the belly skin. This strip of downy sallik skin, free from contour feathers, facilitates the sewing of one skin to its neighbour. Such coats with the sallik skin essentially removed are particularly warm and bear a special name, sallikituq, which translates literally as "it is without sallik." But when eider skins are scarce, the extra breadth provided by the wing pocket areas mean that a coat can be made from fewer skins. To economize, most of the sallik skin area is left on the sides of each breast-belly skin, resulting in cold spots and a coat that is not as warm.

33 Finally, even the tiny and finely-feathered skins of the eider's head and neck have a use suited to their small size and frailty. Qikirtamiut sew them together with fine stitches to form warm and exceptionally delicate bonnets for newborn babies. Several Qikirtamiut women spoke with great admiration of a woman, the mother of a present-day community elder, who made a woman's parka entirely from the head and neck skins of eiders. This feat won her considerable renown as an exceptional seamstress. The head and neck skins of the eider are remarkably soft and velvety and as no Belcher Island coats of such unusual and meticulous design have been preserved, we can only imagine how exquisite a work of art it must have been. Hatt (1969), citing Khvostov and Davydov (1810), mentions a large Kodiak Island (Alaska) coat made exclusively of "the extremely beautiful, velvety neck portion" of the Pelecanus urile. For this masterpiece, 140 neck skins were required.

37 While Qikirtamiut women agreed that the woman's coat was generally made from adult female eider skins, in the reconstruction project adult male skins were preferred on several occasions. The chest panel of the amaqusik, for example, was made from seven adult male eider skins (Fig. 2). These are reputed to be the toughest of eider skins, the least likely to burst or tear under stress. Selection of durable skins for the upper breast or savvik (the two central skins of the upper tier) is of particular importance. This area of the front panel helps support the weight of the child in the pouch and is subject to the stress imposed by the movement of the mother's arms and actions such as the shifting of the child to the front of the coat for breast-feeding.

38 The woman sewers were also concerned about the appearance of the saa and in particular of the savvik. The four "best-looking" skins were selected for the central panel and the best two of these became the savvik, the upper tier (Fig. 3). As the amaqusik is an inner coat, worn skin surface outward, the primary consideration was not the appearance of the plumage, but rather the appearance of the inner skin surface. A skin surface that is very white and unblemished is considered most desirable. Exceptionally white skins are said to come from very fat eiders whose skins were cleaned of fat soon after being killed. These skins are further bleached by an extended period of frost-drying (Speck, 1937, 348). The longer they are exposed to sub-zero temperatures, the whiter they are reported to become. Thus the selection of the whitest skins for the most visible part of the coat, the savvik or breast panel, bears witness to the hunter's prowess (having captured fat eiders) and the meticulous preparation by the woman.

39 Piecing together the tunuk is complicated by the presence of the shoulder panels and the back pouch for carrying the child. Here again, durable skins were particularly sought after for the shoulders, pouch and upper back. For this reason, the skins of adult male eiders figure prominently among the ten Common Eider skins used for the back panel (Fig. 4).

40 Of particular interest, however, is the presence of the skin of another bird species, the only non-eider skin used in the entire coat. This skin is that of a Common Loon (Gavia immer). It is strategically positioned so as to line the bottom of the child-carrying pouch (Fig. 5). If the child should urinate in the pouch, the loon's highly water-repellent plumage allows the mother to easily tip the urine out onto the ground behind her by pulling the back of the coat away from her body and leaning forward. As the plumage of other bird skins is not as waterproof, their feathers allow the urine to penetrate down to the skin, causing rotting and loss of feathers. As a result, the child-carrying pouch becomes cold. When a loon skin is not available for this usage, an adult male eider skin is the next best choice.

41 The hood or nasaq is composed of two parts: the allinik (lower) and the qallinik (upper). The hood shelters the head but is not subject to stress and strain as it does not carry any weight. Instead, suppleness is of vital importance, as the hood must drape over the woman and child's heads, and lie close in order to retain warmth and exclude gusts of wind (Fig. 6). To fulfill this requirement, the women chose for the allinik the skins of six immature males, one immature female, and one adult female. Of the five skins required for the qallinik, which is the top of the hood and therefore particularly in need of being supple, all are immature female eiders, the most fragile and flexible of eider skins (Fig. 7).

42 Each aiq or sleeve is made from the equivalent of two and one-half eider skins. The woman who made the sleeves for the present coat opted for durability and used two adult male eider skins for the upper part of the sleeve. She explained that the sleeve had to be strong where it joined the shoulder and was subject to much movement. At the cuff, however, a half skin from an immature female was added (Fig. 8). Here the requirement is great flexibility to allow the lower sleeve to be rolled up when the woman is working so as to avoid soiling with grease or blood. Unlike for western clothing, when the lower sleeve is rolled up, it is turned inwards.

43 The fragile but supple skins of the immature female eider are used in another strategic location. When the sleeves are attached, a strip of immature female eider skin called the uniq serves to join the lower edge of the sleeve to the body of the coat (Fig. 9). This makes for a very flexible junction between sleeve and torso, almost like a hinge, that lies beneath the armpit. Here it is not subject to the same stress as the skin above the shoulder (made of adult male skins), but must be very supple. Thus the choice of immature female skin.

44 The apron and tail flap of the amaqusik are subject to wear and tear. Whenever possible they were made of dog skin, a tough and durable material. If dog skin was not available, however, bird skins were used in its place. Bird skin flaps were not made from the same part of the skin as the rest of the coat. Rather than the large and thickly feathered breast skins, the small squares cut from the eider's back were employed.

45 All the women's bird skin coats in museum collections known to the author possess flaps made from dog skin. For this reason, it was decided to make the front apron and tail flaps of this coat from eider back skins, the qulusuk, in order to observe and record the techniques involved.

46 A series of eider back skins are attached top to bottom to form narrow, vertical strips. For the shorter front apron, a total of fourteen back skins are utilized. The longer but narrower tail flap is composed of a total of twenty-three back skins. Feather orientation of all skins is from top to bottom. The back skins of all types of eiders may be used for the apron and tail flap. However, when adult male back skins are used, as for this reconstructed coat, the end product is strikingly decorative with rows of stark black triangles set against a background of fine white feathers.