Vol. 53 No. 3 (2026)
Column

The Tooth of Time: Eureka and Other Moments Toward Snowball Earth

Paul F. Hoffman
1216 Montrose Avenue, Victoria, British Columbia, V8T 2K4, Canada

Published 2026-09-24

Keywords

  • Cap carbonate,
  • Eureka moment,
  • Sea-ice albedo bifurcation,
  • Seawater Sr isotopes,
  • Snowball Earth,
  • Strangelove ocean
  • ...More
    Less

How to Cite

Hoffman, P. F. (2026). The Tooth of Time: Eureka and Other Moments Toward Snowball Earth. Geoscience Canada, 53(3), 213–240. https://doi.org/10.12789/geocanj.2026.53.234

References

  1. Abbot, D.S., 2014, Resolved Snowball Earth clouds: Journal of Climate, v. 27, p. 4391−4402, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00738.1.
  2. Abbot, D.S., Voigt, A., Li, D.W., Le Hir, G., Pierrehumbert, R.T., Branson, M., Pollard, D., and Koll, D.D.B., 2013, Robust elements of Snowball Earth atmospheric circulation and oases for life: Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, v. 118, p. 6017−6027, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50540.
  3. Ahm, A.-S.C., Bjerrum, C.J., Hoffman, P.F., Macdonald, F.A., Maloof, A.C., Rose, C.V., Strauss, J.V., and Higgins, J.A., 2021, The Ca and Mg isotope record of the Cryogenian Trezona carbon isotope excursion: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 568, no. 117002, https://doi.org.10.1016/j.epsl.2021.117002.
  4. Allen, P.A., and Hoffman, P.F., 2005, Extreme winds and waves in the aftermath of a Neoproterozoic glaciation: Nature, v. 433, p. 123−127, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03176.
  5. Archer, D., and Pierrehumbert, R., 2011, The Warming Papers: The Scientific Foundation for the Climate Change Forecast: Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, 419 p.
  6. Ashkenazy, Y., Gildor, H., Losch, M., Macdonald, F.A., Schrag, D.P., and Tziperman, E., 2013, Dynamics of a Snowball Earth ocean: Nature, v. 495, p. 90−93, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11894.
  7. Bahcall, J.N., Pinsonneault, M.H., and Basu, S., 2001, Solar models: current epoch and time dependences, neutrinos, and helioseismological properties: Astrophysical Journal, v. 555, p. 990−1012, https://doi.org/10.1086/321493.
  8. Bao, H.M., 2015, Sulfate: A time capsule for Earth’s O2, O3, and H2O: Chemical Geology, v. 395, p. 108−118, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2014.11.025.
  9. Bao, H.M., Lyons, J.R., and Zhou, C.M., 2008, Triple oxygen isotope evidence for elevated CO2 levels after a Neoproterozoic glaciation: Nature, v. 453, p. 504−506, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature06959.
  10. Bao, H.M., Fairchild, I.J., Wynn, P.M., and Spötl, C., 2009, Stretching the envelope of past surface environments: Neoproterozoic glacial lakes from Svalbard: Science, v. 323, p. 119−122, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1165373.
  11. Bao, H.M., Cao, X.B., and Hayles, J.A., 2016, Triple oxygen isotopes: fundamental relationships and applications: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 44, p. 463–492, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-060115-012340.
  12. Bednarick, A.L., Bucholz, C.E., DePaolo, D.J., and Stolper, D.A., 2024, Temporal covariation of island arc Sr isotopes and seawater chemistry over the past 2 billion years: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, v. 121, no. e2401832121, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2401832121.
  13. Benn, D.I., Le Hir, G., Bao, H.M., Donnadieu, Y., Dumas, C., Fleming, E.J., Hambrey, M.J., McMillan, E.A., Petronis, M.S., Ramstein, G., Stevenson, C.T.E., Wynn, P.M., and Fairchild, I.J., 2015, Orbitally forced ice sheet fluctuations during the Marinoan Snowball Earth glaciation: Nature Geoscience, v. 8, p. 704−708, https://doi.org/10.1038/NGEO2502.
  14. Bold, U., Smith, E.F., Rooney, A.D., Bowring, S.A., Buchwaldt, R., Dudás, F.Ö., Ramezani, J., Crowley, J.L., Schrag, D.P., and Macdonald, F.A., 2016, Neoproterozoic stratigraphy of the Zavkhan terrane of Mongolia: the backbone for Cryogenian and early Ediacaran chemostratigraphic records: American Journal of Science, v. 316, p. 1−63, https://doi.org/10.2475/01.2016.01.
  15. Bowring, S.A., Williams, I.S., and Compston, W., 1989, 3.96 Ga gneisses from the Slave Province, Northwest Territories, Canada: Geology, v. 17, p. 971−975, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1989)0173C0971:GGFTSP3E2.3.CO;2.
  16. Bowring, S.A., Housh, T.B., and Isachsen, C.E., 1990, The Acasta gneisses: remnant of Earth’s early crust, in Newsom, H.E., and Jones, J.H., eds., Origin of the Earth: Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, p. 319−343, https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195066197.003.0018.
  17. Broecker, W.S., and Peng, T.H., 1982, Tracers in the Sea: Eldigio Press, Palisades, NY, 690 p.
  18. Budyko, M.I., 1968a, On the origin of glacial epochs [English translation]: Meteorology and Hydrology, v. 2, p. 3−8.
  19. Budyko, M.I., 1968b, Polar ice and climate, in Fletcher, J.O., ed., Proceedings of the Symposium on the Arctic Heat Budget and Atmospheric Circulation, January 31 through February 4, 1966, Lake Arrowhead, California (p. 3−21): The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, CA.
  20. Budyko, M.I., 1969, The effect of solar radiation variations on the climate of the Earth: Tellus, v. 21, p. 611−619, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2153-3490.1969.tb00466.x.
  21. Budyko, M.I., 1974, Climate and Life [English translation]: Academic Press, Oxford, 508 p.
  22. Budyko, M.I., 1977, Climatic Changes [English translation]: American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 261 p., https://doi.org/10.1029/SP010.
  23. Budyko, M.I., 1982, The Earth’s Climate: Past and Future [English translation]: Academic Press, Oxford, 307 p.
  24. Caldeira, K., and Kasting, J.F., 1992, Susceptibility of the early Earth to irreversible glaciation caused by carbon dioxide clouds: Nature, v. 359, p. 226−228, https://doi.org/10.1038/359226a0.
  25. Canfield, D.E., and Raiswell, R., 1999, The evolution of the sulfur cycle: American Journal of Science, v. 299, p. 697−723, https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.299.7-9.697.
  26. Cao, X.B., and Bao, H.M., 2013, Dynamic model constraints on oxygen−17 depletion in atmospheric O2 after a snowball Earth: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, v. 110, p. 14546−14550, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1302972110.
  27. Cloud, P., Wright, L.A., Williams, E.G., Diehl, P., and Walter, M.R., 1974, Giant stromatolites and associated vertical tubes from the upper Proterozoic Noonday Dolomite, Death Valley region, eastern California: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 85, p. 1869−1882, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1974)853C1869:GSAAVT3E2.0.CO;2.
  28. Collins, A.S., Blades, M.L., Merdith, A.S., and Foden, J.D., 2021, Closure of the Proterozoic Mozambique Ocean was instigated by a late Tonian plate reorganization: Nature, Communications Earth and Environment, v. 2, no. 75, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-021-00149-z.
  29. Corsetti, F.A., and Grotzinger, J.P., 2005, Origin and significance of tube structures in Neoproterozoic post-glacial cap carbonates: Example from Noonday Dolomite, Death Valley, United States: Palaios, v. 20, p. 348−362, https://doi.org/10.2110/palo.2003.p03-96.
  30. Crockford, P.W., Cowie, B.R., Johnston, D.T., Hoffman, P.F., Sugiyama, I., Pellerin, A., Bui, T.H., Hayles, J., Halverson, G.P., Macdonald, F.A., and Wing, B.A., 2016, Triple oxygen and multiple sulfur isotope constraints on the evolution of the post-Marinoan sulfur cycle: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 435, p. 74−83, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2015.12.017.
  31. Crockford, P.W., Hodgskiss, M.S.W., Uhlein, G.J., Caxito, F., Hayles, J.A., and Halverson, G.P., 2018, Linking paleocontinents through triple oxygen isotope anomalies: Geology, v. 46, p. 179−182, https://doi.org/10.1130/G39470.1.
  32. Crockford, P.W., Wing, B.A., Paytan, A., Hodgskiss, M.S.W., Mayfield, K.K., Hayles, J.A., Middleton, J.E., Ahm, A.-S.C., Johnston, D.T., Caxito, F., Uhlein, G., Halverson, G.P., Eickmann, B., Torres, M., and Horner, T.J., 2019, Barium-isotopic constraints on the origin of post-Marinoan barites: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 519, p. 234−244, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2019.05.018.
  33. Crockford, P.W., Mehra, A., Domack, E., and Hoffman, P.F., 2021, An occurrence of radially symmetric sedimentary structures in the basal Ediacaran cap dolostone (Keilberg Member) of the Otavi Group: Communications of the Geological Survey of Namibia, v. 23, p. 26−38, https://the-eis.com/elibrary/taxonomy/term/103650?page=10.
  34. Crowell, J.S., 1957, Origin of pebbly mudstones: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 68, p. 993−1010, https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1957)685B993:OOPM5D2.0.CO;2.
  35. Cuffey, K.M., and Patterson, W.S.B., 2010, The Physics of Glaciers, 4th Edition: Butterworth−Heinemann, Oxford, UK, 701 p.
  36. Dalton, L.A., Bosak, T., Macdonald, F.A., Lahr, D.J.G., and Pruss, S.B., 2013, Preservational and morphological variability of assemblages of agglutinated eukaryotes in Cryogenian cap carbonates of northern Namibia: Palaios, v. 28, p. 67−79, https://doi.org/10.2110/palo.2012.p12-084r.
  37. Dalziel, I.W.D., 1991, Pacific margins of Laurentia and Antarctica−Australia as a conjugate rift pair: Evidence and implications for an Eocambrian supercontinent: Geology, v. 19, p. 598−601, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1991)0193C0598:PMOLAE3E2.3.CO;2.
  38. Davis, D.W., 2008, Sub-million-year age resolution of Precambrian igneous events by thermal extraction-thermal-ionization mass spectrometer Pb dating of zircon: Application to crystallization of the Sudbury impact melt sheet: Geology, v. 36, p. 383−386, https://doi.org/10.1130/G24502A.1.
  39. Debenham, F., 1920, A new mode of transportation by ice: the raised marine muds of South Victoria Land (Antarctica): Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, v. 75, p. 51−76, https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.JGS.1919.075.01-04.08.
  40. Delaney, M.L., 1998, Phosphorus accumulation in marine sediments and the oceanic phosphorus cycle: Global Biogeochemical Cycles, v. 12, p. 563−572, https://doi.org/10.1029/98GB02263.
  41. Delaney, M.L., and Anderson L.D., 1997, Phosphorus geochemistry in Ceara Rise sediments, in Shackleton, N.J., Curry, W.B., Richter, C., and Bralower, T.J., eds., Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program Scientific Results: Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX, v. 154, p. 475−482, https://doi.org/10.2973/odp.proc.sr.154.124.1997.
  42. Domack, E.W., and Hoffman, P.F., 2011, An ice grounding-line wedge from the Ghaub glaciation (635 Ma) on the distal foreslope of the Otavi carbonate platform, Namibia, and its bearing on the snowball Earth hypothesis: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 123, p. 1448−1477, https://doi.org/10.1130/B30217.1.
  43. Donnadieu, Y., Fluteau, F., Ramstein, G., Ritz, C., and Besse, J., 2003, Is there a conflict between the Neoproterozoic glacial deposits and the snowball Earth interpretation: an improved understanding with numerical modeling: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 208, p. 101−112, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(02)01152-4.
  44. Embleton, B.J.J., and Williams, G.E., 1986, Low palaeolatitude of deposition for late Precambrian periglacial varvites in South Australia: implications for palaeoclimatology: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 79, p. 419−430, https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(86)90197-4.
  45. Eskola, P., 1920, The mineral facies of rocks: Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift, v. 6, p. 145−194.
  46. Eyles, N., and Young, G.M., 1994, Geodynamic controls on glaciation in Earth history, in Deynoux, M., Miller, J.M.G., Domack, E.W., Eyles, N., Fairchild, I., and Young, G.M., eds., Earth’s Glacial Record: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, p. 1−28, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511628900.002.
  47. Fabre, S., and Berger, G., 2012, How tillite weathering during the snowball Earth aftermath induced cap carbonate deposition: Geology, v. 40, p. 1027−1030, https://doi.org/10.1130/G33340.1.
  48. Fairchild, I.J., Spencer, A.M., Ali, D.O., Anderson, R.P., Anderton, R., Boomer, I., Dove, D., Evans, J.D., Hambrey, M.J., Howe, J., Sawaki, Y., Shields, G.A., Skelton, A., Tucker, M.E., Wang, Z.R., and Zhou, Y., 2018, Tonian−Cryogenian boundary sections of Argyll, Scotland: Precambrian Research, v. 319, p. 37−64, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2017.09.020.
  49. Farquhar, J., Bao, H.M., and Thiemens, M., 2000, Atmospheric influence of Earth’s earliest sulfur cycle: Science, v. 289, p. 756−758, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.289.5480.756.
  50. Gevers, T.W., 1931, An ancient tillite in South-West Africa: Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa, v. 34, p. 1−17.
  51. Goddéris, Y., Le Hir, G., Macouin, M., Donnadieu, Y., Hubert-Théou, L., Dera, G., Aretz, M., Fluteau, F., Li, Z.X., and Halverson, G.P., 2017, Paleogeographic forcing of the strontium isotopic cycle in the Neoproterozoic: Gondwana Research, v. 42, p. 151–162, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2016.09.013.
  52. Goodman, J.C., and Pierrehumbert, R.T., 2003, Glacial flow of floating marine ice in “Snowball Earth”: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 108, no. 3308, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JC001471.
  53. Goodman, J.C., and Strom, D.C., 2013, Feedbacks in a coupled ice-atmosphere-dust model of the glacial Neoproterozoic “Mudball Earth”: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 118, p. 11546–11557, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50849.
  54. Gough, D.O., 1981, Solar interior structure and luminosity variations: Solar Physics, v. 74, p. 21−34, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00151270.
  55. Grotzinger, J.P., and Knoll, A.H., 1995, Anomalous carbonate precipitates: is the Precambrian the key to the Permian?: Palaios, v. 10, p. 578−596, https://doi.org/10.2307/3515096.
  56. Halverson, G.P., Hoffman, P.F., Schrag, D.P., and Kaufman, A.J., 2002, A major perturbation of the carbon cycle before the Ghaub glaciation (Neoproterozoic) in Namibia: prelude to snowball Earth?: Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, v. 3, p. 1–24, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001GC000244.
  57. Halverson, G.P., Dudás, F.Ö., Maloof, A.C., and Bowring, S.A., 2007, Evolution of the 87Sr/86Sr composition of Neoproterozoic seawater: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 256, p. 103−129, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.02.028.
  58. Halverson, G.P., Poitrasson, F., Hoffman, P.F., Nédélec, A., Montel, J.-M., and Kirby, J., 2011, Fe isotope and trace element geochemistry of the Neoproterozoic syn-glacial Rapitan iron formation: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 309, p. 100−112, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2011.06.021.
  59. Halverson, G.P., Porter, S., and Shields, G., 2020, The Tonian and Cryogenian Periods, in Gradstein, F.M., Ogg, J.G., Schmitz, M.D., and Ogg, G.M., eds., Geologic Time Scale 2020: Elsevier, Amsterdam, p. 495−519, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824360-2.00017-6.
  60. Hambrey, M.J., and Harland, W.B., 1981, Earth’s pre-Pleistocene Glacial Record: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1004 p.
  61. Harland, W.B., 1964, Evidence of late Precambrian glaciation and its significance, in Nairn, A.E.M., ed., Problems in Palaeoclimatology: John Wiley Interscience, London, UK, p. 119−149.
  62. Harland, W.B., and Rudwick, M.J.S., 1964, The great infra-Cambrian ice age: Scientific American, August 1964, p. 42–49.
  63. Hartmann, D.L., 2016, Global Physical Climatology, 2nd Edition: Elsevier, Amsterdam, 485 p.
  64. Hartnady, C.J.H., 1991a, About turn for supercontinents: Nature, News and Views, v. 352, p. 476−478, https://doi.org/10.1038/352476d0.
  65. Hartnady, C.J.H., 1991b, Supercontinents and geotectonic megacycles: Precambrian Research Unit, University of Cape Town, Information Circular No. 1, Pt. 2, p. 6−16.
  66. Hawes, I., Jungblut, A.D., Matys, E.D., and Summons, R.E., 2018, The “dirty ice” of the McMurdo Ice Shelf: analogues for biological oases during the Cryogenian: Geobiology, v. 16, p. 369−377, https://doi.org/10.1111/gbi.12280.
  67. Hedberg, R.M., 1979, Stratigraphy of the Ovamboland Basin, South-West Africa: Bulletin 24, Precambrian Research Unit, University of Cape Town, South Africa, 365 p. and 6 map sheets (scale 1:250 000).
  68. Higgins, J.A., and Schrag, D.P., 2003, Aftermath of a snowball Earth: Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, v. 4, no. 1028, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GC000403.
  69. Hoffman, P.F., 1967, Algal stromatolites: use in stratigraphic correlation and paleocurrent determination: Science, v. 157, p. 1043−1045, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.157.3792.1043.
  70. Hoffman, P.F., 1984, Geology, northern Internides of Wopmay Orogen, District of Mackenzie, Northwest Territories: Geological Survey of Canada, “A” Series Map, 1576A, scale 1:250K, https://doi.org/10.4095/120011 (free download).
  71. Hoffman, P.F., 1991, Did the breakout of Laurentia turn Gondwanaland inside-out?: Science, v. 252, p. 1409−1412, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.252.5011.1409.
  72. Hoffman, P.F., 1996, Geology, northern externides of Wopmay Orogen, District of Mackenzie, Northwest Territories: Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 3251, scale 1:250K, https://doi.org/10.4095/207791 (free download).
  73. Hoffman, P.F., 1999, The break-up of Rodinia, birth of Gondwana, true polar wander and the snowball Earth: Journal of African Earth Sciences, v. 28, p. 17−33, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0899-5362(99)00018-4.
  74. Hoffman, P.F., 2011, Strange bedfellows: glacial diamictite and cap carbonate from the Marinoan (635 Ma) glaciation in Namibia: Sedimentology, v. 58, p. 57−119, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.2010.01206.x.
  75. Hoffman, P.F., 2012, The Tooth of Time: Cesare Emiliani: Geoscience Canada, v. 39, p. 13−16, https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/GC/article/view/19452.
  76. Hoffman, P.F., 2016, Cryoconite pans on Snowball Earth: supraglacial oases for Cryogenian eukaryotes?: Geobiology, v. 14, p. 531−542, https://doi.org/10.1111/gbi.12191.
  77. Hoffman, P.F., 2020, Cusp tectonics: an Ediacaran megakarst landscape and bidirectional mass slides in a Pan-African syntaxis (NW Namibia), in Murphy, J.B., Strachan, R.A., and Quesada, C., eds., Pannotia to Pangea: Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic Orogenic Cycles in the Circum-Atlantic Region: Geological Society, London, Special Publications, v. 503, p. 105−142, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP503-2019-253.
  78. Hoffman, P.F., 2023, Glacial erosion on a snowball Earth: testing for bias in flux balance, geographic setting, and tectonic regime: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 60, p. 765−777, https://doi.org/10.1139/cjes-2022-0004.
  79. Hoffman, P.F., 2025, Ecosystem relocation on Snowball Earth: polar−alpine ancestry of the extant surface biosphere?: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, v. 122, no. e2414059122, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2414059122.
  80. Hoffman, P.F., 2026, Two asynchronous Ediacaran paleoceans in the Damara orogen of Namibia?: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 279, no. 105537, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2026.105537.
  81. Hoffman, P.F., in press, Snowball Earth in 4-G: Geology, Geophysics, Geochemistry, Geobiology: Phoenix Science Press, Nanjing, China.
  82. Hoffman, P.F., and Hall, L., 1993, Geology, Slave Craton and Environs, District of Mackenzie and Northwest Territories: Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 2559, scale, 1:1M, https://doi.org.10.4095/183951 (free download).
  83. Hoffman, P.F., and Halverson, G.P., 2011, Neoproterozoic glacial record in the Mackenzie Mountains, northern Canadian Cordillera, in Arnaud, E., Halverson, G.P., and Shields-Zhou, G., eds., The Geologic Record of Neoproterozoic Glaciations: Geological Society, London, Memoir 36, p. 397−411, https://doi.org/10.1144/M36.36.
  84. Hoffman, P.F., and Li, Z.X., 2009, A palaeogeographic context for Neoproterozoic glaciation: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 277, p. 158−172, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.03.013.
  85. Hoffman, P.F., and Macdonald, F.A., 2010, Sheet-crack cements and early regression in Marinoan (635 Ma) cap dolostones: regional benchmarks of vanishing ice-sheets?: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 300, p. 374−384, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2010.10.027.
  86. Hoffman, P.F., and Schrag, D.P., 2002, The snowball Earth hypothesis: testing the limits of global change: Terra Nova, v. 14, p. 129−155, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3121.2002.00408.x.
  87. Hoffman, P.F., Hawkins, D.P., Isachsen, C.E., and Bowring, S.A., 1996, Precise U−Pb zircon ages for early Damaran magmatism in the Summas Mountains and Welwitschia Inlier, northern Damara Belt, Namibia: Communications of the Geological Survey of Namibia, v. 11, p. 47−52.
  88. Hoffman, P.F., Kaufman, A.J., and Halverson, G.P., 1998a, Comings and goings of global glaciations on a Neoproterozoic tropical platform in Namibia: GSA Today, v. 8, no. 5, p. 1−9.
  89. Hoffman, P.F., Kaufman, A.J., Halverson, G.P., and Schrag, D.P., 1998b, A Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth: Science, v. 281, p. 1342−1346, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.281.5381.1342.
  90. Hoffman, P.F., Abbot, D.S., Ashkenazy, Y., Benn, D.I., Brocks, J.J., Cohen, P.A., Cox, G.M., Creveling, J.R., Donnadieu, Y., Erwin, D.H., Fairchild, I.J., Ferreira, D., Goodman, J.C., Halverson, G.P., Jansen, M.F., Le Hir, G., Love, G.D., Macdonald, F.A., Maloof, A.C., Partin, C.A., Ramstein, G., Rose, B.E.J., Rose, C.V., Sadler, P.M., Tziperman, E., Voigt, A., and Warren, S.G., 2017a, Snowball Earth climate dynamics and Cryogenian geology–geobiology: Science Advances, v. 3, no. e1600983, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1600983.
  91. Hoffman, P.F., Lamothe, K.G., LoBianco, S.J.C., Hodgskiss, M.S.W., Bellefroid, E.J., Johnson, B.W., Hodgin, E.B., and Halverson, G.P., 2017b, Sedimentary depocenters on Snowball Earth: Case studies from the Sturtian Chuos Formation in northern Namibia: Geosphere, v. 13, p. 811−837, https://doi.org/10.1130/GES01457.1.
  92. Hoffman, P.F., Halverson, G.P., Schrag, D.P., Higgins, J.A., Domack, E.W., Macdonald, F.A., Pruss, S.B., Blättler, C.L., Crockford, P.W., Hodgin, E.B., Bellefroid, E.J., Johnson, B.W., Hodgskiss, M.S.W., Lamothe, K.G., LoBianco, S.J.C., Busch, J.F., Howes, B.J., Greenman, J.W., and Nelson, L.L., 2021, Snowballs in Africa: sectioning a long-lived Neoproterozoic carbonate platform and its bathyal foreslope (NW Namibia): Earth-Science Reviews, v. 219, no. 103616, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103616.
  93. Hoffmann, K.-H., and Prave, A.R., 1996, A preliminary note on a revised subdivision and regional correlation of the Otavi Group based on glaciogenic diamictites and associated cap dolomites: Communications of the Geological Survey of Namibia, v. 11, p. 77−82.
  94. Hoffmann, K.-H., Condon, D.J., Bowring, S.A., and Crowley, J.L., 2004, U−Pb zircon date from the Neoproterozoic Ghaub Formation, Namibia: constraints on Marinoan glaciation: Geology, v. 32, p. 817−820, https://doi.org/10.1130/G20519.1.
  95. Hsü, K.J., and McKenzie, J.A., 1985, A “Strangelove” ocean in the earliest Tertiary, in Sundquist, E.T., and Broecker, W.S., eds., The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric CO2: Natural Variations Archean to Present: American Geophysical Union, Geophysical Monograph 32, p. 487−492.
  96. Jacobsen, S.B., and Kaufman, A.J., 1999, The Sr, C and O isotopic evolution of Neoproterozoic seawater: Chemical Geology, v. 161, p. 37−57, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(99)00080-7.
  97. Jansen, M.F., 2016, The turbulent circulation of a Snowball Earth ocean: Journal of Physical Oceanography, v. 46, p. 1917−1933, https://doi.org/10.1175/JPO-D-15-0224.1.
  98. Jiang, L.-Q., Feely, R.A., Carter, B.R., Greeley, D.J., Gledhill, D.K., and Arzayus, K.M., 2015, Climatological distribution of aragonite saturation state in the global oceans: Global Biogeochemical Cycles, v. 29, p. 1656−1673, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GB005198.
  99. Johnston, D.T., Macdonald, F.A., Gill, B.C., Hoffman, P.F., and Schrag, D.P., 2012, Uncovering the Neoproterozoic carbon cycle: Nature, v. 483, p. 320−323, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10854.
  100. Kaufman, A.J., Hayes, J.M., Knoll, A.H., and Germs, G.J.B., 1991, Isotopic compositions of carbonates and organic carbon from upper Proterozoic successions in Namibia: stratigraphic variation and the effects of diagenesis and metamorphism: Precambrian Research, v. 49, p. 301−327, https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(91)90039-D.
  101. Kaufman, A.J., Knoll, A.H., and Narbonne, G.M., 1997, Isotopes, ice ages, and terminal Proterozoic Earth history: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, v. 94, p. 6600−6605, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.94.13.6600.
  102. Kellerhals, P., and Matter, A., 2003, Facies analysis of a glaciomarine sequence, the Neoproterozoic Mirbat Sandstone Formation, Sultanate of Oman: Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae, v. 96, p. 49−70, https://doi.org/10.5169/seals-169006.
  103. Kennedy, M.J., Christie-Blick, N., and Prave, A.R., 2001, Carbon isotopic composition of Neoproterozoic glacial carbonates as a test of paleoceanographic models for snowball Earth phenomena: Geology, v. 29, p. 1135−1138, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2001)0293C1135:CICONG3E2.0.CO;2.
  104. Kerr, R.A., 1998, Did an ancient deep freeze nearly doom life?: Science, v. 281, p. 1259−1261, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.281.5381.1259.
  105. Kerr, R.A., 2000, An appealing Snowball Earth that’s still hard to swallow: Science, v. 287, p. 1734−1736, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.287.5459.1734.
  106. Ketchum, K.Y., Heaman, L.M., Bennett, G., and Hughes, D.J., 2013, Age, petrogenesis and tectonic setting of the Thessalon volcanic rocks, Huronian Supergroup, Canada: Precambrian Research, v. 233, p. 144−172, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2013.04.009.
  107. Kirschvink, J.L., 1992, Late Proterozoic low-latitude glaciation: the snowball Earth, in Schopf, J.W., and Klein, C., eds., The Proterozoic Biosphere: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., p. 51−52.
  108. Kirschvink, J.L., Ripperdan, R.L., and Evans, D.A.D., 1997, Evidence for a large-scale reorganization of Early Cambrian continental masses by inertial interchange true polar wander: Science, v. 277, p. 541−545, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5325.541.
  109. Klein, C., and Beukes, N.J., 1993, Sedimentology and geochemistry of the glaciogenic late Proterozoic Rapitan Iron-Formation in Canada: Economic Geology, v. 88, p. 542−565, https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.88.3.542.
  110. Knoll, A.H., 1991, End of the Proterozoic Eon: Scientific American, p. 64−73, https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican1091-64.
  111. Knoll, A.H., and Walter, M.R., 1992, Latest Proterozoic stratigraphy and Earth history: Nature, v. 365, p. 673−678, https://doi.org/10.1038/356673a0.
  112. Knoll, A.H., Hayes, J.M., Kaufman, A.J., Swett, K., and Lambert, I.B., 1986, Secular variation in carbon isotope ratios from Upper Proterozoic successions of Svalbard and East Greenland: Nature, v. 321, p. 832−838, https://doi.org/10.1038/321832a0.
  113. Kröner, A., 1981, Late Precambrian diamictites of South Africa and Namibia, in Hambrey, M.J., and Harland, W.B., eds., Earth’s pre-Pleistocene glacial record: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., p. 167−177.
  114. Kroopnick, P.M., 1985, The distribution of 13C of ΣCO2 in the world oceans: Deep Sea Research, v. 32, p. 57–84, https://doi.org/10.1016/0198-0149(85)90017-2.
  115. Kump, L.R., 1991, Interpreting carbon-isotope excursions: Strangelove oceans: Geology, v. 19, p. 299−302, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1991)0193C0299:ICIESO3E2.3.CO;2.
  116. Kump, L.R., and Seyfried Jr, W.E., 2005, Hydrothermal Fe fluxes during the Precambrian: Effect of low oceanic sulfate concentrations and low hydrostatic pressure on the composition of black smokers: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 235, p. 654−662, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2005.04.040.
  117. Kump, L.R., Brantley, S.L., and Arthur, M.A., 2000, Chemical weathering, atmospheric CO2, and climate: Annual Reviews of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 28, p. 611−667, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.611.
  118. Lechte, M.A., Wallace, M.W., and Hoffmann, K.-H., 2018, Glacio-marine iron formation deposition in a c. 700 Ma glaciated margin: insights from the Chuos Formation, Namibia, in Le Heron, D.P., Hogan, K.A., Phillips, E.R., Huuse, M., Busfield, M.E., and Graham, A.G.C., eds., Glaciated Margins: The Sedimentary and Geophysical Archive: Geological Society, London, Special Publication 475, p. 9−34, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP475.2.
  119. Lechte, M.A., Wallace, M.W., Hood, A. v.S., Li, W.Q., Jiang, G.Q., Halverson, G.P., Asael, D., McColl, S.L., and Planavsky, N.J., 2019, Subglacial meltwater supported aerobic marine habitats during Snowball Earth: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, v. 116, p. 25478−25483, https://doi.org.10.1073/pnas.1909165116.
  120. Le Roex, H.D., 1941, A tillite in the Otavi Mountains, S.W.A.: Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa, v. 44, p. 207−218.
  121. Li, D.W., and Pierrehumbert, R.T., 2011, Sea glacier flow and dust transport on Snowball Earth: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 38, no. L17501, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL048991.
  122. Lindzen, R.S., and Hou, A.V., 1988, Hadley circulations for zonally averaged heating centered off the equator: Journal of Atmospheric Sciences, v. 45, p. 2416–2427, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1988)0453C2416:HCFZAH3E2.0.CO;2.
  123. Liu, C., Wang, Z.R., Raub, T.D., Macdonald, F.A., and Evans, D.A.D., 2014, Neoproterozoic cap-dolostone deposition in stratified glacial meltwater plume: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 404, p. 22−32, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2014.06.039.
  124. Liu, Y.G., Yang, J., Bao, H.M., Shen, B., and Hu, Y.Y., 2020, Large equatorial seasonal cycle during Marinoan snowball Earth: Science Advances, v. 6, no. eaay2471, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aay2471.
  125. Luz, B., and Barkan, E., 2000, Assessment of oceanic productivity with the triple-isotope composition of dissolved oxygen: Science, v. 288, p. 2028−2031, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.288.5473.2028.
  126. Luz, B., Barkan, E., Bender, M.L., Thiemens, M.H., and Boering, K.A., 1999, Triple-isotope composition of atmospheric oxygen as a tracer of biosphere productivity: Nature, v. 400, p. 547−550, https://doi.org/10.1038/22987.
  127. Macdonald, F.A., Renger, E., Tasistro-Hart, A.R., Byerly, B.L., Jackson, M.G., Bergmann, K.D., Horner, T.J., and Crockford, P.W., 2025, Mantle-like Sr isotopes in a Sturtian cap carbonate in Oman: Geology, v. 53, p. 753−756, https://doi.org/10.1130/G53385.1.
  128. Marshall, H.G., Walker, J.C.G., and Kuhn, W.R., 1988, Long-term climate change and the geochemical cycle of carbon: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 93, p. 791−801, https://doi.org/10.1029/JD093iD01p00791.
  129. Marshall, S.J., 2012, The Cryosphere: Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 287 p.
  130. Martin, H., 1965, The Precambrian geology of South West Africa and Namaqualand: Precambrian Research Unit, University of Cape Town, South Africa, 159 p. and map (scale 1:5M).
  131. Martin, H., Porada, H., and Walliser, O.H., 1985, Mixtite deposits of the Damara sequence, Namibia: problems of interpretation: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 51, p. 159−196, https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(85)90084-7.
  132. McDermott, K., Gillbard, E., and Clarke, N., 2015, From basalt to skeletons – the 200 million-year history of the Namibian margin uncovered by new seismic data: Firstbreak, v. 33, p. 77−85, https://doi.org/10.3997/1365-2397.33.12.83748.
  133. Mercolli, I., Briner, A.P., Frei, R., Schönberg, R., Nägler, T.F., Kramers, J., and Peters, T., 2006, Lithostratigraphy and geochronology of the Neoproterozoic crystalline basement of Salalah, Dhofar, Sultanate of Oman: Precambrian Research, v. 145, p. 182–206, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2005.12.002.
  134. Milanković, M., 1998, Canon of Insolation and the Ice-Age Problem (English translation of the 1941 Serbian Edition by D. Stefanović with biographical preface by N.K. Pantić): Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Belgrade, 634 p.
  135. Miller, R.McG., 1997, The Owambo Basin of northern Namibia, in Selley, R.C., ed., African Basins: Elsevier, Amsterdam, p. 237−268, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1874-5997(97)80014-7.
  136. Mills, B., Watson, A.J., Goldblatt, C., Boyle, R., and Lenton, T.M., 2011, Timing of Neoproterozoic glaciations linked to transport-limited global weathering: Nature Geoscience, v. 4, p. 861−864, https://doi.org/10.1038/NGEO1305.
  137. Moores, E.M., 1991, The Southwest U.S.—East Antarctica (SWEAT) connection: a hypothesis: Geology, v. 19, p. 425−428, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1991)0193C0425:SUSEAS3E2.3.CO;2.
  138. North, G.R., Cahalan, R.F., and Coakley Jr, J.A., 1981, Energy balance climate models: Reviews of Geophysics, v. 19, p. 91−121, https://doi.org/10.1029/RG019i001p00091.
  139. Opdyke, B.N., and Wilkinson, B.H., 1990, Paleolatitude distribution of Phanerozoic marine ooids and cements: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 78, p. 135−148, https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-0182(90)90208-O.
  140. Partin, C.A., and Sadler, P.M., 2016, Slow net sediment accumulation sets snowball Earth apart from all younger glacial episodes: Geology, v. 44, p. 1019−1022, https://doi.org/10.1130/G38350.1.
  141. Peucker-Ehrenbrink, B., and Fiske, G.J., 2019, A continental perspective of the seawater 87Sr/86Sr record: a review: Chemical Geology, v. 510, p. 140−165, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2019.01.017.
  142. Phillips, O.M., 1970, On flows induced by diffusion in a stably stratified fluid: Deep-Sea Research, v. 17, p. 435−443, https://doi.org/10.1016/0011-7471(70)90058-6.
  143. Pollard, D., and Kasting, J.F., 2004, Climate−ice sheet simulations of Neoproterozoic glaciation before and after collapse to Snowball Earth, in Jenkins, G.S., McMenamin, M.A.S., McKay, C.P., and Sohl, L., eds., The Extreme Proterozoic: Geology, Geochemistry, and Climate: American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, Geophysical Monograph Series 146, p. 91−105, https://doi.org/10.1029/146GM09.
  144. Popper, K., 1976, Unended Quest: An Intellectual Autobiography: Routledge, London, 328 p.
  145. Pruss, S.B., Bosak, T., Macdonald, F.A., McLane, M., and Hoffman, P.F., 2010, Microbial facies in a Sturtian cap carbonate, the Rasthof Formation, Otavi Group, northern Namibia: Precambrian Research, v. 181, p. 187−198, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2010.06.006.
  146. Ramme, L., and Marotzke, J., 2022, Climate and ocean circulation in the aftermath of a Marinoan snowball Earth: Climate of the Past, v. 18, p. 759−774, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-759-2022.
  147. Rankama, K., 1973, The Late Precambrian glaciation, with particular reference to the Southern Hemisphere: Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, v. 106, p. 89−97, https://doi.org/10.5962/p.361007.
  148. Reusch, H., 1891, Skuringsmaerker og moraenegrus eftervist I Finnmarken fre en periode meget aeldre end “istiden” [Glacial striae and boulder-clay in Norwegian Lapponie from a period much older than the last “ice-age”]: Norges Geologiske Undersøgelse, v. 1, p. 78−85 (English summary p. 97−100).
  149. Rice, A.H.N., Viehmann, S., Peng, Y.B., and Bao, H.M., 2024, Sedimentary environment of basal Ediacaran barite growth on Baltica in E. Finnmark, N. Norway, and subsequent dissolution/reprecipitation: Precambrian Research, v. 406, no. 107384, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2024.107384.
  150. Rieu, R., Allen, P.A., Etienne, J.L., Cozzi, A., and Wiechert, U., 2006, A Neoproterozoic glacially influenced basin margin succession and ‘atypical’ cap carbonate associated with bedrock palaeovalleys, Mirbat area, southern Oman: Basin Research, v. 18, p. 471−496, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365.2006.00304.x.
  151. Rignot, E., and Mouginot, J., 2012, Ice flow in Greenland for the International Polar Year 2008−2009: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 39, no. L11501, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL051634.
  152. Rodgers, J., 1957, The distribution of marine carbonate sediments: a review, in Le Blanc, R.J., and Breeding, J.G., eds., Regional Aspects of Carbonate Deposition: Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Tulsa, OK, Special Publication No. 5, p. 2−14.
  153. Rooney, A.D., Macdonald, F.A., Strauss, J.V., Dudás, F.Ö., Hallmann, C., and Selby, D., 2014, Re−Os geochronology and coupled Os−Sr isotope constraints on the Sturtian snowball Earth: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, v. 111, p. 51−56, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1317266110.
  154. Rooney, A.D., Strauss, J.V., Brandon, A.D., and Macdonald, F.A., 2015, A Cryogenian chronology: Two long-lasting synchronous Neoproterozoic glaciations: Geology, v. 43, p. 459−462, https://doi.org/10.1130/G36511.1.
  155. Rose, C.V., Swanson-Hysell, N.L., Husson, J.M., Poppick, L.N., Cottle, J.M., Schoene, B., and Maloof, A.C., 2012, Constraints on the origin and relative timing of the Trezona δ13C anomaly below the end-Cryogenian glaciation: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 319−320, p. 241−250, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2011.12.027.
  156. Rose, C.V., Maloof, A.C., Schoene, B., Ewing, R.C., Linnemann, U., Hofmann, M., and Cottle, J.M., 2015, The end-Cryogenian glaciation of South Australia, in Murphy, J.B., Hildebrand, R.S., and Halverson, G.P., eds., Stirring the Pot: A Celebration of the Career of Paul F. Hoffman: Geological Association of Canada, Geoscience Canada Reprint Series 11, p. 113−150.
  157. Rothman, D.H., Hayes, J.M., and Summons, R.E., 2003, Dynamics of the Neoproterozoic carbon cycle: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, v. 100, p. 8124−8129, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0832439100.
  158. Sagan, C., and Mullen, G., 1972, Earth and Mars: evolution of atmospheres and surface temperatures: Science, v. 177, p. 52−56, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.177.4043.52.
  159. Schermerhorn, L.J.G., 1974, Late Precambrian mixtites: glacial and/or nonglacial?: American Journal of Science, v. 274, p. 673−824, https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.274.7.673.
  160. Schmidt, P.W., and Williams, G.E., 1995, The Neoproterozoic climatic paradox: Equatorial palaeolatitude for Marinoan glaciation near sea level in South Australia: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 134, p. 107−124, https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(95)00106-M.
  161. Schopf, J.W., 2021, Precambrian paleobiology: precedents, progress, and prospects: Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, v. 9, no. 707072, https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2021.707072.
  162. Schrag, D.P., and DePaolo, D.J., 1993, Determination of δ18O of seawater in the deep ocean during the Last Glacial Maximum: Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology, v. 8, p. 1−6, https://doi.org/10.1029/92PA02796.
  163. Sellers, W.D., 1965, Physical Climatology: University of Chicago Press, 272 p.
  164. Sellers, W.D., 1969, A global climatic model based on the energy balance of the Earth–atmosphere system: Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, v. 8, p. 392−400, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1969)0083C0392:AGCMBO3E2.0.CO;2.
  165. Sepúlveda, J., Wendler, J.E., Summons, R.E., and Hinrichs, K.-U., 2009, Rapid resurgence of marine productivity after the Cretaceous−Paleogene mass extinction: Science, v. 326, p. 129−132, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1176233.
  166. Shields, G.A., 2005, Neoproterozoic cap carbonates: a critical appraisal of existing models and the plumeworld hypothesis: Terra Nova, v. 17, p. 299−310, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3121.2005.00638.x.
  167. Stern, R.J., 1994, Arc assembly and continental collision in the Neoproterozoic East African orogen: Implications for the consolidation of Gondwanaland: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 22, p. 319−351, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ea.22.050194.001535.
  168. Stommel, H.M., 1987, A View of the Sea: A Discussion Between a Chief Engineer and an Oceanographer About the Machinery of the Ocean Circulation: Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 184 p.
  169. Sumner, D.Y., Kirschvink, J.L., and Runnegar, B.N., 1987, Soft-sediment paleomagnetic fold tests of late Precambrian glaciogenic sediments [abstract]: EOS, American Geophysical Union Transactions, v. 68, p. 1251.
  170. Swanson-Hysell, N.L., Zhang, Y.M., Macdonald, F.A., Koran, I., Tasistro-Hart, A.R., and Jay, A.F., 2025, Oman was on the northern margin of a wide late Tonian Mozambique Ocean: Geology, v. 53, p. 909–913, https://doi.org/10.1130/G53450.1.
  171. Tasistro-Hart, A.R., Macdonald, F.A., Crowley, J.L., and Schmitz, M.D., 2025, Four-million-year Marinoan snowball shows multiple routes to deglaciation: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, v. 122, no. e2418281122, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1418281122.
  172. Tasistro-Hart, A.R., Macdonald, F.A., Crowley, J.L., Schmitz, M.D., and Kylander-Clark, A., 2026, Stable sedimentary dynamics of a deep-sea fan across the Marinoan Snowball Earth glaciation: Geology, v. 54, p. 769−774, https://doi.org/10.1130/G54474.1.
  173. Thiemens, M.H., 1999, Mass-independent isotope effects in planetary atmospheres and the early Solar System: Science, v. 283, p. 341−345, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.283.5400.341.
  174. Thiemens, M.H., and Heidenreich III, J.E., 1983, The mass-independent fractionation of oxygen: a novel isotope effect and its possible cosmochemical implications: Science, v. 219, p. 1073−1074, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.219.4588.1073.
  175. Tziperman, E., Abbot, D.S., Ashkenazy, Y., Gildor, H., Pollard, D., Schoof, C.G., and Schrag, D.P., 2012, Continental constriction and oceanic ice-cover thickness in a Snowball-Earth scenario: Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, v. 117, no. C05016, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JC007730.
  176. Veizer, J., Ala, D., Azmy, K., Bruckschen, P., Buhl, D., Bruhn, F., Carden, G.A.F., Diener, A., Ebneth, S., Goddéris, Y., Jasper, T., Korte, C., Pawellek, F., Podlaha, O.G., and Strauss, H., 1999, 87Sr/86Sr, δ13C and δ18O evolution of Phanerozoic seawater: Chemical Geology, v. 161, p. 59–88, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(99)00081-9.
  177. Vincent, W.F., and Howard-Williams, C., 2000, Life on snowball Earth: Science Letters, v. 287, p. 2421, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.287.5462.2421b.
  178. Vincent, W.F., Gibson, J.A.E., Pienitz, R., Villeneuve, V., Broady, P.A., Hamilton, P.B., and Howard-Williams, C., 2000, Ice shelf microbial ecosystems in the High Arctic and implications for life on snowball Earth: Naturwissenschaften, v. 87, p. 137−141, https://doi.org/10.1007/s001140050692.
  179. Vincent, W.F., Mueller, D., and Bonilla, S., 2004a, Ecosystems on ice: the microbial ecology of Markham Ice Shelf in the High Arctic: Cryobiology, v. 48, p. 103−112, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cryobiol.2004.01.006.
  180. Vincent, W.F., Mueller, D., van Hove, P., and Howard-Williams, C., 2004b, Glacial periods on early Earth and implications for the evolution of life, in Seckbach, J., ed., Origins. Cellular Origin, Life in Extreme Habitats and Astrobiology: Springer, Netherlands, v. 6, p. 483−501, https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-2522-X_29.
  181. Voigt, A., 2013, The dynamics of the Snowball Earth Hadley circulation for off-equatorial and seasonal varying insolation: Earth System Dynamics, v. 4, p. 425−438, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-4-425-2013.
  182. Voigt, A., Abbot, D.S., Pierrehumbert, R.T., and Marotzke, J., 2011, Initiation of a Marinoan Snowball Earth in a state-of-the-art atmosphere−ocean general circulation model: Climate of the Past, v. 7, p. 249−263, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-7-249-2011.
  183. Walker, G., 2003, Snowball Earth: the Story of the Great Global Catastrophe that Spawned Life as We Know It: Crown, New York, 265 p.
  184. Walker, J.C.G., Hays, P.B., and Kasting, J.F., 1981, A negative feedback mechanism for the long-term stabilization of Earth’s surface temperature: Journal of Geophysical Research Oceans, v. 86, p. 9776−9782, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC086iC10p09776.
  185. Warren, S.G., Brandt, R.E., Grenfell, T.C., and McKay, C.P., 2002, Snowball Earth: ice thickness on the tropical ocean: Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, v. 107, p. 31-1–31-18, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JC001123.
  186. Weart, S.R., 2003, The Discovery of Global Warming: Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 228 p.
  187. Wetherald, R.T., and Manabe, S., 1975, The effects of changing the solar constant on the climate of a general circulation model: Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, v. 32, p. 2044−2059, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1975)0323C2044:TEOCTS3E2.0.CO;2.
  188. Wharton Jr, R.A., McKay, C.P., Simmons Jr, G.M., and Parker, B.C., 1985, Cryoconite holes on glaciers: BioScience, v. 35, p. 499−503, https://doi.org/10.2307/1309818.
  189. Williams, G.E., 1993a, History of the Earth’s obliquity: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 34, p. 1−45, https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-8252(93)90004-Q.
  190. Williams, G.E., 1993b, The enigmatic Late Proterozoic glacial climate: an Australian perspective, in Deynoux, M., Miller, J.M.G., Domack, E.W., Eyles, N., Fairchild, I., and Young, G.M., eds., Earth’s Glacial Record: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, p. 146−164, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511628900.012.
  191. Williams, G.E., 2000, Geological constraints on the Precambrian history of Earth’s rotation and the Moon’s orbit: Reviews of Geophysics, v. 38, p. 37−59, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999RG900016.
  192. Williams, G.E., Gostin, V.A., McKirdy, D.M., and Preiss, W.V., 2008, The Elatina glaciation, late Cryogenian (Marinoan Epoch), South Australia: sedimentary facies and palaeoenvironments: Precambrian Research, v. 163, p. 307−331, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2007.12.001.
  193. Windley, B.F., 1984, The Evolving Continents, 2nd Edition: John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK, 420 p.
  194. Worsley, T.R., and Kidder, D.L., 1991, First-order coupling of paleogeography and CO2, with global surface temperature and its latitudinal contrast: Geology, v. 19, p. 1161−1164, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1991)0193C1161:FOCOPA3E2.3.CO;2.
  195. Wunsch, C., 1970, On oceanic boundary mixing: Deep-Sea Research, v. 17, p. 293−301, https://doi.org/10.1016/0011-7471(70)90022-7.
  196. Wunsch, C., 2016, Tides of global ice-covered oceans: Icarus, v. 274, p. 122−130, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2016.03.026.
  197. Yang, J., Jansen, M.F., Macdonald, F.A., and Abbot, D.S., 2017, Persistence of a freshwater surface ocean after a snowball Earth: Geology, v. 45, p. 615−618, https://doi.org/10.1130/G38920.1.
  198. Yung, Y.L., DeMore, W.B., and Pinto, J.P., 1991, Isotopic exchange between carbon dioxide and ozone via O(1D) in the stratosphere: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 18, p. 13–16, https://doi.org/10.1029/90GL02478.
  199. Zachos, J.C., Arthur, M.A., and Dean, W.E., 1989, Geochemical evidence for suppression of pelagic marine productivity at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary: Nature, v. 337, p. 61−64, https://doi.org/10.1038/337061a0.
  200. Zhou, C.M., Bao, H.M, Peng, Y.B., and Yuan, X.L., 2010, Timing the deposition of 17O-depleted barite at the aftermath of Nantuo glacial meltdown in South China: Geology, v. 38, p. 903−906, https://doi.org/10.1130/G31224.1.
  201. Zhou, C.M., Huyskens, M.H., Lang, X.G., Xiao, S.H., and Yin, Q.-Z., 2019, Calibrating the terminations of Cryogenian global glaciations: Geology, v. 47, p. 251−254, https://doi.org/10.1130/G45719.1.
  202. Zolnai, A.I., Price, R.A., and Helmstaedt, H., 1984, Regional cross section of the Southern Province adjacent to Lake Huron, Ontario: implications for the tectonic significance of the Murray Fault Zone: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 21, p. 447−456, https://doi.org/10.1139/e84-048.